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* Key threats to bonobos are hunting, artisanal mining, roads and agricultural expansion.
* Key threats to bonobos are hunting, artisanal mining, roads and agricultural expansion.
* Conservation activities have focused on providing benefits to the local community.
* Conservation activities have focused on providing benefits to the local community.




= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


The site was established as a community-based nature reserve in 2009 (Surbeck, Coxe & Lokasola 2017). Besides bonobos, the site is inhabited by various duiker species (e.g. blue duiker ''Cephalophus monticola'', black-fronted duiker ''Cephalophus nigrifrons'', bay duiker ''Cephalophus dorsalis'' and Peter’s duiker ''Cephalophus callipygus''), monkeys (e.g. red-tailed monkeys ''Cercopithecus ascanius'', Wolf’s mona monkey ''Cercopithecus wolfi'' and De Brazza’s monkey ''Cercopithecus neglectus''), red river hogs (''Potamochoerus porcus''), sitatungas (''Tragelaphus spekii''), aardvarks (''Orycteropus afer''), tree pangolins (''Phataginus tricuspis''), golden cats (''Felis aurata'') and leopards (''Panthera pardus'').
The site was established as a community-based nature reserve in 2009 ([[#R00901|Surbeck, Coxe & Lokasola 2017]]). In addition to bonobos, the Kokolopori Forest hosts numerous other species, including a diverse assemblage of primates. The first-ever study of the rare Salongo monkey (''Cercopithecus dryas'') was conducted in Kokolopori, where it benefits from protection by the local community ([https://www.bonobo.org/preserving-rainforest Bonobo Conservation Initiative], n.d.).


'''Table 1. Basic site information for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve'''
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|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Slash-and-burn agriculture aimed at opening fields for self-sustenance (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020). Forest clearing for farming near or within reserve boundaries; farms expanding into wildlife habitat; edge effects (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|Slash-and-burn agriculture aimed at opening fields for self-sustenance (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025). Forest clearing for farming near or within reserve boundaries; farms expanding into wildlife habitat; edge effects ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|2020-Ongoing (2023)
|2020-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting, mainly with snares and traps, but also guns (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020). Hunting of wildlife (bonobos, other species) for meat; includes occasional snares; driven by need for food/income (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|2020-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Artisanal gold mining next to rivers, low intensity and small scale (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020).
|Artisanal gold mining next to rivers, low intensity and small scale (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2020)
|2020-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Wide dirt road crossing bonobo ranges (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020).
|Wide dirt road crossing bonobo ranges (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2020)
|2020-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting, mainly with snares and traps, but also guns (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025). Hunting of wildlife (bonobos, other species) for meat; includes occasional snares; driven by need for food/income ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|2020-Ongoing (2025)
|}
|}


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= Conservation activities =
= Conservation activities =


The establishment of the reserve resulted as a collaborative effort among the DRC government, the ICCN, the Bonobo Conservation Initiative, the local NGO Vie Sauvage, and the residents of Kokolopori (BCI 2020).
The establishment of the reserve resulted as a collaborative effort among the DRC government, the ICCN, the Bonobo Conservation Initiative, the local NGO Vie Sauvage, and the residents of Kokolopori ([[#R00896|BCI 2020]]).


'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve'''
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!Implementing organization(s)
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The reserve was initiated by Vie Sauvage in 2000 and supported by BCI in 2001, with community-based governance and participatory decision-making (Narat et al. 2015). Villages sign accords with Vie Sauvage and BCI to protect bonobos and forest; formal recognition by DRC government in 2009 (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|Vie Sauvage, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, local communities, DRC government (ICCN).
|2000, 2009-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Local trackers / eco‑guards employed; monitoring of bonobo groups; restriction of snares (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|Local trackers / eco‑guards employed; monitoring of bonobo groups; restriction of snares ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|Vie Sauvage, BCI, local communities
|Vie Sauvage, BCI, local communities
|2003-Ongoing(2025)
|2003-Ongoing(2025)
|-
|-
|6 Species management
|4 Education & awareness
|6.1 Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Habituation of certain bonobo groups, tracking, behavioral & ecological studies; permanent field site (Lonoa) established (Surbeck et al. 2017).
|Environmental education and awareness ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|Harvard / Max Planck via Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project, Vie Sauvage, BCI
|Vie Sauvage, local communities, Bonobo Conservation Initiative
|2005-Ongoing (2017)
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|The BCI and Vie Sauvage initiated the Bonobo Health Clinic, funded by the Indigo Foundation. The Bonobo Health Clinic provides health-care to the local community (Indigo Foundation 2020). In addition to the clinic, other programs were also implemented, including initiatives for resistant cassava, microcredit, sewing machines for women, agricultural cooperative support and development of ecotourism projects (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|Vie Sauvage, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, local cooperatives
|2007, 2020-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|BCI adopted an information-exchange approach with local communities, and participatory mapping of community forests was implemented (Narat et al. 2015).
|BCI adopted an information-exchange approach with local communities, and participatory mapping of community forests was implemented ([[#R00898|Narat et al. 2015]]).
|BCI, Vie Sauvage
|BCI, Vie Sauvage
|Ongoing (2015)
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|4.6 Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education
|Environmental education and awareness (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|Customary knowledge may include spiritual or cultural beliefs are preserved and promote structured feedback with creative outreach ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|Vie Sauvage, local communities, Bonobo Conservation Initiative
|Vie Sauvage, local communities, Bonobo Conservation Initiative
|Ongoing (2025)
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|5 Protection & restoration
|4.6 Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Customary knowledge may include spiritual or cultural beliefs are preserved and promote structured feedback with creative outreach (Vie Sauvage 2023).
|The reserve was initiated by Vie Sauvage in 2000 and supported by BCI in 2001, with community-based governance and participatory decision-making ([[#R00898|Narat et al. 2015]]). Villages sign accords with Vie Sauvage and BCI to protect bonobos and forest; formal recognition by DRC government in 2009 ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|Vie Sauvage, local communities, Bonobo Conservation Initiative
 
|Ongoing (2025)
|Vie Sauvage, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, local communities, DRC government (ICCN).
|2000, 2009-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.1 Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers
|Habituation of certain bonobo groups, tracking, behavioral & ecological studies; permanent field site (Lonoa) established ([[#R00901|Surbeck et al. 2017]]).
|Harvard / Max Planck via Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project, Vie Sauvage, BCI
|2005-Ongoing (2017)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|The BCI and Vie Sauvage initiated the Bonobo Health Clinic, funded by the Indigo Foundation. The Bonobo Health Clinic provides health-care to the local community ([[#R00897|Indigo Foundation 2020]]). In addition to the clinic, other programs were also implemented, including initiatives for resistant cassava, microcredit, sewing machines for women, agricultural cooperative support and development of ecotourism projects ([[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]).
|Vie Sauvage, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, local cooperatives
|2007, 2020-Ongoing (2025)
|}
|}


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!Source
!Source
!Year(s)
!Year(s)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.2 Local taboos in favor of conservation
|[[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|[[#R00903|Vie Sauvage 2023]]
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|1 Site management
|1 Site management
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|
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|Vie Sauvage 2023
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.2 Local taboos in favor of conservation
|Vie Sauvage 2023
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
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= Research activities =
= Research activities =


The Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project explores the behavioural diversity and feeding ecology of the bonobo population in Kokolopori. The research team has fully habituated two bonobo groups, which are followed on a daily basis since 2016. In 2018, the team also started to habituate and follow a third bonobo group. The habituation of multiple neighbouring bonobo groups in the site has also provided a unique opportunity for the study of within- and between-group relationships in bonobos.
The Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project explores the behavioural diversity and feeding ecology of the bonobo population in Kokolopori. The research team has fully habituated three bonobo groups, which are followed on a daily basis since 2016 ( two communities) and 2018 (one community). A team of local trackers monitors the bonobos of three habituated communities—Ekalakala, Kokoalongo, and Fekako—collecting behavioral, ecological, and epidemiological data (https://kokolopori.hsites.harvard.edu/KBRP Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project n.d.). A fourth neighbouring group is also monitored, although not through daily follows. The habituation of multiple neighbouring bonobo groups in the site has also provided a unique opportunity for the study of within- and between-group relationships, and the nature of their encounters (Ettinger pers. comm. 2025).




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|
|
|
|
|Tokuyama et al. 2017
|[[#R00902|Tokuyama et al. 2017]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|Samuni, Wegdell & Surbeck 2020
|[[#R00899|Samuni, Wegdell & Surbeck 2020]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|Lucchesi pers. comm.
|Lucchesi pers. comm.
|
|
|
|-
|
|Peaceful intergroup encounters
|
|
|
|Sumani and Surbeck 2023
|
|
|
|-
|
|Vocal compositionality
|
|
|
|[[#R00895|Berthet et al., 2025]]
|
|
|
|
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= Exposure to climate change impacts =
= Exposure to climate change impacts =


As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. subm. extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.
As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02229|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.


The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (see Kiribou et al. subm. for details).
The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02229|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).


'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve'''
'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve'''
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|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|5.3
|5.3
|9.6999999999999993
|9.7
|10.3
|10.3
|10.1
|10.1
|9.1999999999999993
|9.2
|-
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|7.2
|7.2
|9.1
|9.1
|9.6999999999999993
|9.7
|9.3000000000000007
|9.3
|10.5
|10.5
|}
|}
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|0
|0
|1
|1
|1.0900000000000001
|1.09
|0.75
|0.75
|0.25
|0.25
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<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Kokolopori_Bonobo_Reserve.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Kokolopori_Bonobo_Reserve.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve]] </li></ul></div>


= External links =
= External links =
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= References =
= References =


Bonobo Conservation Initiative (BCI). (2020, October 21). Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve.https://www.bonobo.org/programs/kokolopori-bonobo-reserve
<span id="R00895"></span>Berthet, M., Surbeck, M., & Townsend, S. W. (2025). Extensive compositionality in the vocal system of bonobos. ''Science'', 388(6742), 104-108. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adv1170 doi:10.1126/science.adv1170]
 
<span id="R00896"></span>Bonobo Conservation Initiative (BCI). (2020, October 21). Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. https://www.bonobo.org/programs/kokolopori-bonobo-reserve
 
<span id="R00897"></span>Indigo Foundation. (2020, October 21). Democratic Republic of Congo: Kokolopori and Vie Sauvage. https://www.indigofoundation.org/completed-projects/democratic-republic-of-congo-kokolopori [https://web.archive.org/web/20231002165854/https://www.indigofoundation.org/completed-projects/democratic-republic-of-congo-kokolopori link]
 
<span id="R00898"></span>Narat, V., Pennec, F., & Pourrut, X. (2015). Bonobo conservation as a means for local development: Lessons from the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. In G. Hohmann, M. M. Robbins, & C. Boesch (Eds.), Bonobos: Unique in mind, brain, and behavior (pp. 355–370). Oxford University Press.


Indigo Foundation (2020, October 21). Democratic Republic of Congo: Kokolopori and Vie Sauvage. https://www.indigofoundation.org/completed-projects/democratic-republic-of-congo-kokolopori
<span id="R00899"></span>Samuni, L., Wegdell, F., & Surbeck, M. (2020). Behavioural diversity of bonobo prey preference as a potential cultural trait. ''eLife'', 9. [https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.59191 doi:10.7554/elife.59191]


Samuni, L., Wegdell, F., & Surbeck. M. (2020). Behavioural diversity of bonobo prey preference as a potential cultural trait. eLife, e59191. DOI: 10.7554/eLife.59191
<span id="R00900"></span>Samuni, L., & Surbeck, M. (2023). Cooperation across social borders in bonobos. ''Science'', 382(6672), 805-809. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adg0844 doi:10.1126/science.adg0844]


Surbeck, M., Coxe, S., & Lokasola, A. L. (2017). Lonoa: The Establishment of a Permanent Field Site for Behavioural Research on Bonobos in the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. Pan Africa News, 24(2), 13–15.
<span id="R00901"></span>Surbeck, M., Coxe, S., & Lokasola, A. L. (2017). Lonoa: The Establishment of a Permanent Field Site for Behavioural Research on Bonobos in the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. ''Pan Africa News'', 24(2), 13-15. [https://doi.org/10.5134/228898 doi:10.5134/228898]


Tokuyama, N., Moore, D. L., Graham, K. E., Lokasola, A., & Furuichi, T. (2017). Cases of maternal cannibalism in wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) from two different field sites, Wamba and Kokolopori, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Primates, 58, 7–12. <br>
<span id="R00902"></span>Tokuyama, N., Moore, D. L., Graham, K. E., Lokasola, A., & Furuichi, T. (2017). Cases of maternal cannibalism in wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) from two different field sites, Wamba and Kokolopori, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Primates, 58, 7–12. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-016-0582-7 doi:10.1007/s10329-016-0582-7]
Vie Sauvage (2023). Vie Sauvage Case Study: The Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve and the Bonobo Peace Forest. Equator Initiative. <br>
Narat, V., Pennec, F., & Pourrut, X. (2015). Bonobo conservation as a means for local development: Lessons from the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. In Hohmann, G., Robbins, M. M., & Boesch, C. (Eds.), Bonobos: Unique in Mind, Brain, and Behavior (pp. 355–370). Oxford University Press. <br>


<span id="R00903"></span>Vie Sauvage. (2023). Vie Sauvage case study: The Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve and the Bonobo Peace Forest. Equator Initiative.


<span id="R02229"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]




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'''Page created by: '''Leveda Cheng & Stefano Lucchesi''' Date:''' 2020-12-10
'''Page created by: '''Leveda Cheng & Stefano Lucchesi''' Date:''' 2020-12-10


'''Page updated by: '''Aime Mizero''' Date:''' 2025-09-19
'''Page updated by: '''Maisie Ettinger, Aime Mizero''' Date:''' 2025-11-11

Latest revision as of 17:53, 15 October 2026

Central Africa > Democratic Republic of the Congo > Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

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Summary

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  • Bonobos (Pan paniscus) are present in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve.
  • The population size is unknown.
  • The population trend is unknown.
  • The site has a total size of 4,875 km².
  • Key threats to bonobos are hunting, artisanal mining, roads and agricultural expansion.
  • Conservation activities have focused on providing benefits to the local community.


Site characteristics

The site was established as a community-based nature reserve in 2009 (Surbeck, Coxe & Lokasola 2017). In addition to bonobos, the Kokolopori Forest hosts numerous other species, including a diverse assemblage of primates. The first-ever study of the rare Salongo monkey (Cercopithecus dryas) was conducted in Kokolopori, where it benefits from protection by the local community (Bonobo Conservation Initiative, n.d.).

Table 1. Basic site information for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Species Pan paniscus
Area 4,875 km²
Coordinates Lat: 0.416667 , Lon: 22.966667
Type of site Protected area (Nature Reserve)
Habitat types Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Agricultural land, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
Type of governance Governance by indigenous peoples and local communities

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

  • Kokolopori forest © Stefano Lucchesi
  • Yete village © Stefano Lucchesi
  • Hunting trap © Stefano Lucchesi

Ape status

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan paniscus Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops Medium (30-70% of population affected) Slash-and-burn agriculture aimed at opening fields for self-sustenance (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025). Forest clearing for farming near or within reserve boundaries; farms expanding into wildlife habitat; edge effects (Vie Sauvage 2023). 2020-Ongoing (2025)
3 Energy production & mining 3.2 Mining & quarrying Low (up to 30% of population affected) Artisanal gold mining next to rivers, low intensity and small scale (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025). 2020-Ongoing (2025)
4 Transportation & service corridors 4.1 Roads & railroads Present (unknown severity) Wide dirt road crossing bonobo ranges (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025). 2020-Ongoing (2025)
5 Biological resource use 5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals High (more than 70% of population affected) Hunting, mainly with snares and traps, but also guns (Lucchesi pers. comm. 2020, Ettinger pers. comm. 2025). Hunting of wildlife (bonobos, other species) for meat; includes occasional snares; driven by need for food/income (Vie Sauvage 2023). 2020-Ongoing (2025)

Threats

Conservation activities

The establishment of the reserve resulted as a collaborative effort among the DRC government, the ICCN, the Bonobo Conservation Initiative, the local NGO Vie Sauvage, and the residents of Kokolopori (BCI 2020).

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares Local trackers / eco‑guards employed; monitoring of bonobo groups; restriction of snares (Vie Sauvage 2023). Vie Sauvage, BCI, local communities 2003-Ongoing(2025)
4 Education & awareness 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use Environmental education and awareness (Vie Sauvage 2023). Vie Sauvage, local communities, Bonobo Conservation Initiative Ongoing (2025)
4 Education & awareness 4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management BCI adopted an information-exchange approach with local communities, and participatory mapping of community forests was implemented (Narat et al. 2015). BCI, Vie Sauvage Ongoing (2015)
4 Education & awareness 4.6 Integrate religion/local taboos into conservation education Customary knowledge may include spiritual or cultural beliefs are preserved and promote structured feedback with creative outreach (Vie Sauvage 2023). Vie Sauvage, local communities, Bonobo Conservation Initiative Ongoing (2025)
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat The reserve was initiated by Vie Sauvage in 2000 and supported by BCI in 2001, with community-based governance and participatory decision-making (Narat et al. 2015). Villages sign accords with Vie Sauvage and BCI to protect bonobos and forest; formal recognition by DRC government in 2009 (Vie Sauvage 2023). Vie Sauvage, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, local communities, DRC government (ICCN). 2000, 2009-Ongoing (2026)
6 Species management 6.1 Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers Habituation of certain bonobo groups, tracking, behavioral & ecological studies; permanent field site (Lonoa) established (Surbeck et al. 2017). Harvard / Max Planck via Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project, Vie Sauvage, BCI 2005-Ongoing (2017)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) The BCI and Vie Sauvage initiated the Bonobo Health Clinic, funded by the Indigo Foundation. The Bonobo Health Clinic provides health-care to the local community (Indigo Foundation 2020). In addition to the clinic, other programs were also implemented, including initiatives for resistant cassava, microcredit, sewing machines for women, agricultural cooperative support and development of ecotourism projects (Vie Sauvage 2023). Vie Sauvage, Bonobo Conservation Initiative, local cooperatives 2007, 2020-Ongoing (2025)

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
Not reported

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
3 Engaged community 3.2 Local taboos in favor of conservation Vie Sauvage 2023 Ongoing (2025)
3 Engaged community 3.6 Local community engagement and support Vie Sauvage 2023 Ongoing (2025)
1 Site management
2 Resources and capacity
4 Institutional support
5 Ecological context
6 Safety and stability

Enablers

Research activities

The Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project explores the behavioural diversity and feeding ecology of the bonobo population in Kokolopori. The research team has fully habituated three bonobo groups, which are followed on a daily basis since 2016 ( two communities) and 2018 (one community). A team of local trackers monitors the bonobos of three habituated communities—Ekalakala, Kokoalongo, and Fekako—collecting behavioral, ecological, and epidemiological data (https://kokolopori.hsites.harvard.edu/KBRP Kokolopori Bonobo Research Project n.d.). A fourth neighbouring group is also monitored, although not through daily follows. The habituation of multiple neighbouring bonobo groups in the site has also provided a unique opportunity for the study of within- and between-group relationships, and the nature of their encounters (Ettinger pers. comm. 2025).


Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Bonobo cannibalism Tokuyama et al. 2017
Duiker, squirrel and anomalure hunting Samuni, Wegdell & Surbeck 2020
Truffle feeding Lucchesi pers. comm.
Peaceful intergroup encounters Sumani and Surbeck 2023
Vocal compositionality Berthet et al., 2025

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).

Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Value 1981-2010 2021-2050, RCP 2.6 2021-2050, RCP 6.0 2071-2099, RCP 2.6 2071-2099, RCP 6.0
Mean temperature [C] 25.5 26.7 26.5 26.9 27.9
Annual precipitation [mm] 2085 2099 2076 2014 2128
Max no. consecutive dry days (per year) 5.3 9.7 10.3 10.1 9.2
No. days with heavy precipitation (per year) 7.2 9.1 9.7 9.3 10.5


Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

Type No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
Crop failure 9.5 0.02 8 0.02 9.5 0.03 26 0.03
Drought 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heatwave 2 100 3 50 9.5 100 8 100
River flood 0 0 1 1.09 0.75 0.25 2.5 0.41
Tropical cyclone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wildfire 30 0.35 30 0.33 29 0.41 29 0.26


  • Precipitation anomaly in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve
  • Temperature anomaly in Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve

External links

Bonobo Conservation Initiative - Kokolopori

References

Berthet, M., Surbeck, M., & Townsend, S. W. (2025). Extensive compositionality in the vocal system of bonobos. Science, 388(6742), 104-108. doi:10.1126/science.adv1170

Bonobo Conservation Initiative (BCI). (2020, October 21). Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. https://www.bonobo.org/programs/kokolopori-bonobo-reserve

Indigo Foundation. (2020, October 21). Democratic Republic of Congo: Kokolopori and Vie Sauvage. https://www.indigofoundation.org/completed-projects/democratic-republic-of-congo-kokolopori link

Narat, V., Pennec, F., & Pourrut, X. (2015). Bonobo conservation as a means for local development: Lessons from the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. In G. Hohmann, M. M. Robbins, & C. Boesch (Eds.), Bonobos: Unique in mind, brain, and behavior (pp. 355–370). Oxford University Press.

Samuni, L., Wegdell, F., & Surbeck, M. (2020). Behavioural diversity of bonobo prey preference as a potential cultural trait. eLife, 9. doi:10.7554/elife.59191

Samuni, L., & Surbeck, M. (2023). Cooperation across social borders in bonobos. Science, 382(6672), 805-809. doi:10.1126/science.adg0844

Surbeck, M., Coxe, S., & Lokasola, A. L. (2017). Lonoa: The Establishment of a Permanent Field Site for Behavioural Research on Bonobos in the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve. Pan Africa News, 24(2), 13-15. doi:10.5134/228898

Tokuyama, N., Moore, D. L., Graham, K. E., Lokasola, A., & Furuichi, T. (2017). Cases of maternal cannibalism in wild bonobos (Pan paniscus) from two different field sites, Wamba and Kokolopori, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Primates, 58, 7–12. doi:10.1007/s10329-016-0582-7

Vie Sauvage. (2023). Vie Sauvage case study: The Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve and the Bonobo Peace Forest. Equator Initiative.

Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. PLOS Climate, 3(2), e0000345. doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345


Page created by: Leveda Cheng & Stefano Lucchesi Date: 2020-12-10

Page updated by: Maisie Ettinger, Aime Mizero Date: 2025-11-11

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