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= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


Bossou is a long-term research site in south-eastern Guinea located 6 km west of the foot of the Nimba mountains (Kormos et al. 2003). The site was established in 1976 by Sugiyama and colleagues from the Kyoto University Primate Research Institute in Japan (Sugiyama 1979). Prior, Kortlandt was the first researcher to study chimpanzees at Bossou in 1960, but continuous research has been ongoing since 1976 (Kormos et al. 2003). Research conducted at Bossou has contributed to the understanding of chimpanzee ecology and behavior through numerous studies as diverse as population dynamics, social structure, feeding behavior, grooming behavior, genetics, tool use (as detailed in Kormos et al. 2003, The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019). In 2001 the Institut de Recherche Environnementale de Bossou was established to foster collaboration between the Guinean government and Japanese researchers (Kormos et al. 2003).
Bossou is a long-term research site in south-eastern Guinea located 6 km west of the foot of the Nimba mountains ([[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]]). The site was established in 1976 by Sugiyama and colleagues from the Kyoto University Primate Research Institute in Japan ([[#R00207|Sugiyama 1979]]). Prior, Kortlandt was the first researcher to study chimpanzees at Bossou in 1960, but continuous research has been ongoing since 1976 ([[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]]). Research conducted at Bossou has contributed to the understanding of chimpanzee ecology and behavior through numerous studies as diverse as population dynamics, social structure, feeding behavior, grooming behavior, genetics, tool use (as detailed in [[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]], [[#R00209|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019]]). In 2001 the Institut de Recherche Environnementale de Bossou was established to foster collaboration between the Guinean government and Japanese researchers ([[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]]).


Only one chimpanzee community remains in the forest surrounding the village of Bossou and ranges in an area of about 20 km2 (Humle 2011). The area is characterized by agricultural areas, secondary forests, savanna and interspersed gallery forests (Sugiyama 1979). The site is not under any formal protection. It was identified as a priority site for conservation in the regional action plan for western chimpanzees (Kormos et al. 2003).
Only one chimpanzee community remains in the forest surrounding the village of Bossou and ranges in an area of about 20 km2 ([[#R00201|Humle 2011]]). The area is characterized by agricultural areas, secondary forests, savanna and interspersed gallery forests ([[#R00207|Sugiyama 1979]]). The site is not under any formal protection. It was identified as a priority site for conservation in the regional action plan for western chimpanzees ([[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]]).


{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0an6uvpJ3RY|330x220|inline}}
{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0an6uvpJ3RY|330x220|inline}}
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= Ape status =
= Ape status =


Since the chimpanzee community at Bossou is habituated to the presence of researchers, exact population estimates have been recorded since the 1970s. From 1976 to 2003 chimpanzee abundance fluctuated around 20 individuals (Sugiyama 1981, Kormos et al. 2003, The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019). In 2004 the size of the chimpanzee community started to decline and is now at 7 individuals (The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019).
Since the chimpanzee community at Bossou is habituated to the presence of researchers, exact population estimates have been recorded since the 1970s. From 1976 to 2003 chimpanzee abundance fluctuated around 20 individuals ([[#R00208|Sugiyama 1981]], [[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]], [[#R00209|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019]]). In 2004 the size of the chimpanzee community started to decline and is now at 7 individuals ([[#R00209|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019]]).


'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Bossou'''
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Bossou'''
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|Full count
|Full count
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|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019
|[[#R00209|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019]]
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|Full count
|Full count
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|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019
|[[#R00209|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019]]
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|Full count
|Full count
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|Sugiyama 1981
|[[#R00208|Sugiyama 1981]]
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|Full count
|Full count
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|Sugiyama 1979
|[[#R00207|Sugiyama 1979]]
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|Full count
|Full count
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|Sugiyama 1979
|[[#R00207|Sugiyama 1979]]
|likely underestimate as chimpanzees were not yet habituated to human observers (Sugiyama 1979)
|likely underestimate as chimpanzees were not yet habituated to human observers (Sugiyama 1979)
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= Threats =
= Threats =


The key threat to chimpanzees is the destruction and fragmentation of habitat which led to the complete isolation of the Bossou chimpanzee community from other chimpanzee groups. The last male chimpanzee migrated into the research group in 1982 (Hirata et al. 1998). In the 1980s other chimpanzee groups in the surrounding area have likely gone extinct (Hirata at el. 1998).
The key threat to chimpanzees is the destruction and fragmentation of habitat which led to the complete isolation of the Bossou chimpanzee community from other chimpanzee groups. The last male chimpanzee migrated into the research group in 1982 ([[#R00194|Hirata et al. 1998]]). In the 1980s other chimpanzee groups in the surrounding area have likely gone extinct (Hirata at el. 1998).


1,500 people live in the village of Bossou. During the civil war in Liberia in the 1990s there was a large influx of migrants from Liberia to Bossou, and the local population almost doubled leading to further deforestation (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a). During the outbreak of a flu-like respiratory disease in 2003 five chimpanzees died (Humle 2011 b). The local population is tolerant towards chimpanzees based on the belief that chimpanzees are reincarnation of their ancestors (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a). Consequently, chimpanzees are not hunted, nor have retaliatory killings as a result of crop raiding by chimpanzees been reported.
1,500 people live in the village of Bossou. During the civil war in Liberia in the 1990s there was a large influx of migrants from Liberia to Bossou, and the local population almost doubled leading to further deforestation ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]]). During the outbreak of a flu-like respiratory disease in 2003 five chimpanzees died ([[#R00201|Humle 2011]] b). The local population is tolerant towards chimpanzees based on the belief that chimpanzees are reincarnation of their ancestors ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]]). Consequently, chimpanzees are not hunted, nor have retaliatory killings as a result of crop raiding by chimpanzees been reported.


'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Bossou'''
'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Bossou'''
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|1.1 Residential areas
|1.1 Residential areas
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|humans live in close proximity chimpanzees, but do not hunt them (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a)
|humans live in close proximity chimpanzees, but do not hunt them ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]])
|Ongoing (2011)
|Ongoing (2011)
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|-
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|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|widespread agriculture (Hockings et al. 2012)
|widespread agriculture ([[#R00196|Hockings et al. 2012]])
|Ongoing (2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
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|-
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|4.1 Roads & railroads
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|chimpanzees need to cross roads to move between habitat patches (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a)
|chimpanzees need to cross roads to move between habitat patches ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]])
|Ongoing (2011)
|Ongoing (2011)
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|-
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|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|most of the forest has been destroyed or degraded, especially when many people moved to the area during the Liberian civil war (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a)
|most of the forest has been destroyed or degraded, especially when many people moved to the area during the Liberian civil war ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]])
|1989-2003
|1989-2003
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|-
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|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|fire do occur in the area (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a)
|fire do occur in the area ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]])
|Ongoing (2011)
|Ongoing (2011)
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|-
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|8.4 Pathogens
|8.4 Pathogens
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|outbreak of flu-like respiratory disease killing five chimpanzees (Humle 2011b)
|outbreak of flu-like respiratory disease killing five chimpanzees ([[#R00199|Humle 2011b]])
|2003
|2003
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= Conservation activities =
= Conservation activities =


Conservation activities focus on reestablishing habitat connectivity between Bossou and the Nimba mountains to end the isolation of the chimpanzee community (Hirata et al. 1998). In 1997 the [“Green Corridor Project”  https://www.greencorridor.info/] started.  To overcome the 10 km distance to the Nimba mountains a habitat corridor is being planted of a length of 4 km and 300m wide through savanna areas.
Conservation activities focus on reestablishing habitat connectivity between Bossou and the Nimba mountains to end the isolation of the chimpanzee community ([[#R00194|Hirata et al. 1998]]). In 1997 the [“Green Corridor Project”  https://www.greencorridor.info/] started.  To overcome the 10 km distance to the Nimba mountains a habitat corridor is being planted of a length of 4 km and 300m wide through savanna areas.


Conservation activities also include environmental awareness raising since 1993 through video screenings, pamphlets, educational material for schools and environmental education sessions at schools (Hirata et al. 1998, Humle 2011c). The research project also provided financial support to the construction of schools and latrines, and material donations to schools (e.g., books, benches etc. Humle 2011c).
Conservation activities also include environmental awareness raising since 1993 through video screenings, pamphlets, educational material for schools and environmental education sessions at schools ([[#R00194|Hirata et al. 1998]], [[#R00200|Humle 2011c]]). The research project also provided financial support to the construction of schools and latrines, and material donations to schools (e.g., books, benches etc. [[#R00200|Humle 2011c]]).


After the outbreak of a respiratory disease in 2003, several measures preventing the spread of human diseases to chimpanzees were implemented: a minimum distance between chimpanzees and humans of 20 m, compulsory wear of a masks, reinforcement of guidelines on disposal of human waste and debris, promoting the construction and usage of latrines in villages, health screening of staff, researchers and tourists working with chimpanzees, and the requirement of up-to-date vaccination by people working with the chimpanzees (Humle 2011b).
After the outbreak of a respiratory disease in 2003, several measures preventing the spread of human diseases to chimpanzees were implemented: a minimum distance between chimpanzees and humans of 20 m, compulsory wear of a masks, reinforcement of guidelines on disposal of human waste and debris, promoting the construction and usage of latrines in villages, health screening of staff, researchers and tourists working with chimpanzees, and the requirement of up-to-date vaccination by people working with the chimpanzees ([[#R00199|Humle 2011b]]).


'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Bossou'''
'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Bossou'''
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|since the outbreak of the respiratory disease all people observing chimpanzees have to wear masks (Humle 2011b)
|since the outbreak of the respiratory disease all people observing chimpanzees have to wear masks ([[#R00199|Humle 2011b]])
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|2003-Ongoing (2011)
|2003-Ongoing (2011)
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|a minimum distance of 20 m is enforced (Humle 2011b)
|a minimum distance of 20 m is enforced ([[#R00199|Humle 2011b]])
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|2003-Ongoing (2011)
|2003-Ongoing (2011)
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|3 Species health
|3 Species health
|3.6 Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
|3.6 Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
|up-to-date vaccinations are required (Humle 2011b)
|up-to-date vaccinations are required ([[#R00199|Humle 2011b]])
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|2003-Ongoing (2011)
|2003-Ongoing (2011)
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|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|video screenings, pamphlets, educational material for schools and environmental education sessions at schools (Hirata et al. 1998, Humle 2011c)
|video screenings, pamphlets, educational material for schools and environmental education sessions at schools ([[#R00194|Hirata et al. 1998]], [[#R00200|Humle 2011c]])
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|1993-Ongoing (2011)
|1993-Ongoing (2011)
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|5 Protection & restoration
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|the Green Corridor Project aims to reestablish habitat connectivity between Bossou and the Nimba mountains  (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a)
|the Green Corridor Project aims to reestablish habitat connectivity between Bossou and the Nimba mountains  ([[#R00205|Matsuzawa et al. 2011a]])
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|1997-Ongoing (2011)
|1997-Ongoing (2011)
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|7 Economic & other incentives
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Financial support for the construction of schools and latrines, material donations to schools (Humle 2011c)
|Financial support for the construction of schools and latrines, material donations to schools ([[#R00200|Humle 2011c]])
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|1999-Ongoing (2011)
|1999-Ongoing (2011)
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= Research activities =
= Research activities =


Since 1976 research has been continuously conducted at Bossou covering a wide range of topics from ecology, demography and social organization, tool use, cognition, communication, culture, feeding behavior, genetics, and social behaviors (listed in more detail in Kormos et al. 2003, Matsuzawa et al. 2011b, The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019). As chimpanzees at Bossou live in a landscape strongly impacted by anthropogenic activities, one focus of research activities was how chimpanzee are behaving in such a landscape, on crop-raiding behavior by chimpanzees and conflicts between chimpanzees and humans (e.g., Hockings et al. 2012, Hockings et al. 2010).
Since 1976 research has been continuously conducted at Bossou covering a wide range of topics from ecology, demography and social organization, tool use, cognition, communication, culture, feeding behavior, genetics, and social behaviors (listed in more detail in [[#R00202|Kormos et al. 2003]], [[#R00206|Matsuzawa et al. 2011b]], [[#R00209|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019]]). As chimpanzees at Bossou live in a landscape strongly impacted by anthropogenic activities, one focus of research activities was how chimpanzee are behaving in such a landscape, on crop-raiding behavior by chimpanzees and conflicts between chimpanzees and humans (e.g., [[#R00195|Hockings et al. 2012, Hockings et al. 2010]]).




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|Whiten et al. 1999
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|The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019
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= Exposure to climate change impacts =
= Exposure to climate change impacts =


As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.
As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02158|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.


The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).
The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02158|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).


'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bossou'''
'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bossou'''
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= References =
= References =


Hirata, S., Morimura, N., & Matsuzawa, T. (1998). Green passage plan (tree planting project) and environmental education using documentary videos at Bossou: A progress report. Pan African News, 5, 18–20. <br>
<span id="R00194"></span>Hirata, S., Morimura, N., & Matsuzawa, T. (1998). Green passage plan (tree planting project) and environmental education using documentary videos at Bossou: A progress report. Pan African News, 5, 18–20.


Hockings, K. J., et al. (2010). Attacks on local persons by chimpanzees in Bossou, Republic of Guinea: Long-term perspectives. American Journal of Primatology, 72, 887–896. <br>
<span id="R00195"></span>Hockings, K. J., Yamakoshi, G., Kabasawa, A., & Matsuzawa, T. (2010). Attacks on local persons by chimpanzees in Bossou, Republic of Guinea: long‐term perspectives. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 72(10), 887-896. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20784 doi:10.1002/ajp.20784]


Hockings, K. J., et al. (2012). Socioecological adaptations by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, inhabiting an anthropogenically impacted habitat. Animal Behaviour, 83(3), 801–810. <br>
<span id="R00196"></span>Hockings, K. J., Anderson, J. R., & Matsuzawa, T. (2012). Socioecological adaptations by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, inhabiting an anthropogenically impacted habitat. ''Animal Behaviour'', 83(3), 801-810. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.002 doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.002]


Hockings, K. J., et al. (2015). Tools to tipple: Ethanol ingestion by wild chimpanzees using leaf-sponges. Royal Society Open Science, 2, 150150. <br>
<span id="R00197"></span>Hockings, K. J., Bryson-Morrison, N., Carvalho, S., Fujisawa, M., Humle, T., McGrew, W. C., …, & Matsuzawa, T. (2015). Tools to tipple: ethanol ingestion by wild chimpanzees using leaf-sponges. ''Royal Society Open Science'', 2(6), 150150. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150150 doi:10.1098/rsos.150150]


Humle, T. (2011a). Location and ecology. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00198"></span>Humle, T. (2011a). Location and ecology. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_3 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_3]


Humle, T. (2011b). The 2003 epidemic of a flu-like respiratory disease at Bossou. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00199"></span>Humle, T. (2011b). The 2003 epidemic of a flu-like respiratory disease at Bossou. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_33 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_33]


Humle, T. (2011c). Environmental education and community development in and around Bossou. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00200"></span>Humle, T. (2011c). Environmental education and community development in and around Bossou. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_39 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_39]


Humle, T., et al. (2011). Algae scooping remains a puzzle. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00201"></span>Humle, T., Yamakoshi, G., & Matsuzawa, T. (2011). Algae Scooping Remains a Puzzle. In ''Primatology Monographs'' (pp. 117-122). Springer Japan. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_12 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_12]


Kormos, R., et al. (2003). The Republic of Guinea. In R. Kormos, C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr, & T. M. Butynski (Eds.), Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group. <br>
<span id="R00202"></span>Kormos, R., et al. (2003). The Republic of Guinea. In R. Kormos, C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr, & T. M. Butynski (Eds.), Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group.


Matsuzawa, T., & Yamakoshi, G. (1996). Comparison of chimpanzee material culture between Bossou and Nimba, West Africa. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes. Cambridge University Press. <br>
<span id="R00203"></span>Matsuzawa, T., & Yamakoshi, G. (1996). Comparison of chimpanzee material culture between Bossou and Nimba, West Africa. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes. Cambridge University Press.


Matsuzawa, T., & Humle, T. (2011). Bossou: 33 years. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00204"></span>Matsuzawa, T., & Humle, T. (2011). Bossou: 33 Years. In ''Primatology Monographs'' (pp. 3-10). Springer Japan. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_2 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_2]


Matsuzawa, T., et al. (2011a). Green corridor project: Planting trees in the savanna between Bossou and Nimba. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00205"></span>Matsuzawa, T., et al. (2011a). Green corridor project: Planting trees in the savanna between Bossou and Nimba. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_38 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_38]


Matsuzawa, T., et al. (2011b). The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. <br>
<span id="R00206"></span>Matsuzawa, T., et al. (2011b). The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6 doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6]


Sugiyama, Y. (1979). Social structure and dynamics of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Primates, 20(3), 323–339. <br>
<span id="R00207"></span>Sugiyama, Y., & Koman, J. (1979). Social structure and dynamics of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. ''Primates'', 20(3), 323-339. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02373387 doi:10.1007/bf02373387]


Sugiyama, Y. (1981). Observation on the population dynamics and behavior of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea, in 1979–1980. Primates, 22(4), 435–444. <br>
<span id="R00208"></span>Sugiyama, Y. (1981). Observations on the population dynamics and behavior of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea, in 1979–1980. ''Primates'', 22(4), 435-444. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02381236 doi:10.1007/bf02381236]


The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. (2019). Green Corridor Project. https://www.greencorridor.info/ <br>
<span id="R00209"></span>The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. (2019). Green Corridor Project. https://www.greencorridor.info/


Whiten, A., et al. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399, 682–685. <br>
<span id="R00210"></span>Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., …, & Boesch, C. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. ''Nature'', 399(6737), 682-685. [https://doi.org/10.1038/21415 doi:10.1038/21415]


<span id="R02158"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]






'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-07-19
'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-07-19

Latest revision as of 17:52, 15 October 2026

West Africa > Republic of Guinea > Bossou

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Summary

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  • Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) are present in Bossou.
  • The last population estimate was 7 individuals.
  • The chimpanzee population trend is declining.
  • This site has a total size of 20 km².
  • Key threats to chimpanzees are isolation due to habitat destruction and fragmentation.
  • The following conservation activities were implemented: establishing a habitat corridor and environmental education.
  • Bossou is one of the longest-running research sites on chimpanzees.

Site characteristics

Bossou is a long-term research site in south-eastern Guinea located 6 km west of the foot of the Nimba mountains (Kormos et al. 2003). The site was established in 1976 by Sugiyama and colleagues from the Kyoto University Primate Research Institute in Japan (Sugiyama 1979). Prior, Kortlandt was the first researcher to study chimpanzees at Bossou in 1960, but continuous research has been ongoing since 1976 (Kormos et al. 2003). Research conducted at Bossou has contributed to the understanding of chimpanzee ecology and behavior through numerous studies as diverse as population dynamics, social structure, feeding behavior, grooming behavior, genetics, tool use (as detailed in Kormos et al. 2003, The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019). In 2001 the Institut de Recherche Environnementale de Bossou was established to foster collaboration between the Guinean government and Japanese researchers (Kormos et al. 2003).

Only one chimpanzee community remains in the forest surrounding the village of Bossou and ranges in an area of about 20 km2 (Humle 2011). The area is characterized by agricultural areas, secondary forests, savanna and interspersed gallery forests (Sugiyama 1979). The site is not under any formal protection. It was identified as a priority site for conservation in the regional action plan for western chimpanzees (Kormos et al. 2003).

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Table 1. Basic site information for Bossou

Species Pan troglodytes verus
Area 20 km²
Coordinates Lat: 7.65 , Lon: -8.49
Type of site Non-protected area
Habitat types Agricultural land, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Savanna
Type of governance

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

Since the chimpanzee community at Bossou is habituated to the presence of researchers, exact population estimates have been recorded since the 1970s. From 1976 to 2003 chimpanzee abundance fluctuated around 20 individuals (Sugiyama 1981, Kormos et al. 2003, The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019). In 2004 the size of the chimpanzee community started to decline and is now at 7 individuals (The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019).

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Bossou

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes verus 2018 7.0 Bossou Full count The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019
Pan troglodytes verus 2004 14.0 Bossou Full count The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019
Pan troglodytes verus 1979-1980 20 (19-21) Bossou Full count Sugiyama 1981
Pan troglodytes verus 1976 21.0 Bossou Full count Sugiyama 1979
Pan troglodytes verus 1967 17.0 Bossou Full count Sugiyama 1979 likely underestimate as chimpanzees were not yet habituated to human observers (Sugiyama 1979)

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

The key threat to chimpanzees is the destruction and fragmentation of habitat which led to the complete isolation of the Bossou chimpanzee community from other chimpanzee groups. The last male chimpanzee migrated into the research group in 1982 (Hirata et al. 1998). In the 1980s other chimpanzee groups in the surrounding area have likely gone extinct (Hirata at el. 1998).

1,500 people live in the village of Bossou. During the civil war in Liberia in the 1990s there was a large influx of migrants from Liberia to Bossou, and the local population almost doubled leading to further deforestation (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a). During the outbreak of a flu-like respiratory disease in 2003 five chimpanzees died (Humle 2011 b). The local population is tolerant towards chimpanzees based on the belief that chimpanzees are reincarnation of their ancestors (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a). Consequently, chimpanzees are not hunted, nor have retaliatory killings as a result of crop raiding by chimpanzees been reported.

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Bossou

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
1 Residential & commercial development 1.1 Residential areas Medium (30-70% of population affected) humans live in close proximity chimpanzees, but do not hunt them (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a) Ongoing (2011)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops High (more than 70% of population affected) widespread agriculture (Hockings et al. 2012) Ongoing (2012)
4 Transportation & service corridors 4.1 Roads & railroads Medium (30-70% of population affected) chimpanzees need to cross roads to move between habitat patches (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a) Ongoing (2011)
5 Biological resource use 5.3 Logging & wood harvesting High (more than 70% of population affected) most of the forest has been destroyed or degraded, especially when many people moved to the area during the Liberian civil war (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a) 1989-2003
7 Natural system modifications 7.1 Fire & fire suppression Low (up to 30% of population affected) fire do occur in the area (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a) Ongoing (2011)
8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases 8.4 Pathogens Medium (30-70% of population affected) outbreak of flu-like respiratory disease killing five chimpanzees (Humle 2011b) 2003

Threats

Conservation activities

Conservation activities focus on reestablishing habitat connectivity between Bossou and the Nimba mountains to end the isolation of the chimpanzee community (Hirata et al. 1998). In 1997 the [“Green Corridor Project” https://www.greencorridor.info/] started. To overcome the 10 km distance to the Nimba mountains a habitat corridor is being planted of a length of 4 km and 300m wide through savanna areas.

Conservation activities also include environmental awareness raising since 1993 through video screenings, pamphlets, educational material for schools and environmental education sessions at schools (Hirata et al. 1998, Humle 2011c). The research project also provided financial support to the construction of schools and latrines, and material donations to schools (e.g., books, benches etc. Humle 2011c).

After the outbreak of a respiratory disease in 2003, several measures preventing the spread of human diseases to chimpanzees were implemented: a minimum distance between chimpanzees and humans of 20 m, compulsory wear of a masks, reinforcement of guidelines on disposal of human waste and debris, promoting the construction and usage of latrines in villages, health screening of staff, researchers and tourists working with chimpanzees, and the requirement of up-to-date vaccination by people working with the chimpanzees (Humle 2011b).

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Bossou

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
3 Species health 3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates since the outbreak of the respiratory disease all people observing chimpanzees have to wear masks (Humle 2011b) 2003-Ongoing (2011)
3 Species health 3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes a minimum distance of 20 m is enforced (Humle 2011b) 2003-Ongoing (2011)
3 Species health 3.6 Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy up-to-date vaccinations are required (Humle 2011b) 2003-Ongoing (2011)
4 Education & awareness 4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use video screenings, pamphlets, educational material for schools and environmental education sessions at schools (Hirata et al. 1998, Humle 2011c) 1993-Ongoing (2011)
5 Protection & restoration 5.6 Habitat restoration the Green Corridor Project aims to reestablish habitat connectivity between Bossou and the Nimba mountains (Matsuzawa et al. 2011a) 1997-Ongoing (2011)
7 Economic & other incentives 7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development) Financial support for the construction of schools and latrines, material donations to schools (Humle 2011c) 1999-Ongoing (2011)

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Bossou

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
Not reported

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Bossou

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
1 Site management
2 Resources and capacity
3 Engaged community
4 Institutional support
5 Ecological context
6 Safety and stability

Enablers

Research activities

Since 1976 research has been continuously conducted at Bossou covering a wide range of topics from ecology, demography and social organization, tool use, cognition, communication, culture, feeding behavior, genetics, and social behaviors (listed in more detail in Kormos et al. 2003, Matsuzawa et al. 2011b, The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019). As chimpanzees at Bossou live in a landscape strongly impacted by anthropogenic activities, one focus of research activities was how chimpanzee are behaving in such a landscape, on crop-raiding behavior by chimpanzees and conflicts between chimpanzees and humans (e.g., Hockings et al. 2012, Hockings et al. 2010).


Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Bossou

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Algae scooping Humle et al. 2011
Ant dipping Matsuzawa & Humle 2011
Branch shaking Whiten et al. 1999
Branch slapping Whiten et al. 1999
Buttress beating Whiten et al. 1999
Drinking palm wine Hockings et al. 2015
Hunting and meat eating Sugiyama 1981
Leaf clipping Sugiyama 1981
Leaf cushion The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba 2019
Leaf sponging for drinking water Sugiyama 1981
Medicinal uses of leaves Matsuzawa & Yamakoshi 1996
Nut cracking (palm nut) Sugiyama 1981
Pestle pounding Matsuzawa & Humle 2011
Stem pull-through Whiten et al. 1999
Stone throwing Whiten et al. 1999
Termite fishing Whiten et al. 1999
Wood pounding Whiten et al. 1999

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, Kiribou et al. (2024) extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated (Kiribou et al. 2024).

Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Bossou

Value 1981-2010 2021-2050, RCP 2.6 2021-2050, RCP 6.0 2071-2099, RCP 2.6 2071-2099, RCP 6.0
Mean temperature [C] 25 26.1 26.1 26.2 27.3
Annual precipitation [mm] 1930 1955 1991 1998 2070
Max no. consecutive dry days (per year) 33.9 31.6 30.4 33 33.8
No. days with heavy precipitation (per year) 6 8 7.3 8.2 9.7


Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Bossou

Type No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6) No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0) % of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
Crop failure 7.5 5.96 6.5 5.96 7.5 5.96 17.5 5.96
Drought 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Heatwave 7.5 100 5.5 100 6.5 100 6 100
River flood 0.5 0.08 1.75 0.88 2 1.46 4.5 1.39
Tropical cyclone 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Wildfire 30 0.42 30 0.43 29 0.42 29 0.43


  • Precipitation anomaly in Bossou
  • Temperature anomaly in Bossou

External links

References

Hirata, S., Morimura, N., & Matsuzawa, T. (1998). Green passage plan (tree planting project) and environmental education using documentary videos at Bossou: A progress report. Pan African News, 5, 18–20.

Hockings, K. J., Yamakoshi, G., Kabasawa, A., & Matsuzawa, T. (2010). Attacks on local persons by chimpanzees in Bossou, Republic of Guinea: long‐term perspectives. American Journal of Primatology, 72(10), 887-896. doi:10.1002/ajp.20784

Hockings, K. J., Anderson, J. R., & Matsuzawa, T. (2012). Socioecological adaptations by chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, inhabiting an anthropogenically impacted habitat. Animal Behaviour, 83(3), 801-810. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.002

Hockings, K. J., Bryson-Morrison, N., Carvalho, S., Fujisawa, M., Humle, T., McGrew, W. C., …, & Matsuzawa, T. (2015). Tools to tipple: ethanol ingestion by wild chimpanzees using leaf-sponges. Royal Society Open Science, 2(6), 150150. doi:10.1098/rsos.150150

Humle, T. (2011a). Location and ecology. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_3

Humle, T. (2011b). The 2003 epidemic of a flu-like respiratory disease at Bossou. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_33

Humle, T. (2011c). Environmental education and community development in and around Bossou. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_39

Humle, T., Yamakoshi, G., & Matsuzawa, T. (2011). Algae Scooping Remains a Puzzle. In Primatology Monographs (pp. 117-122). Springer Japan. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_12

Kormos, R., et al. (2003). The Republic of Guinea. In R. Kormos, C. Boesch, M. I. Bakarr, & T. M. Butynski (Eds.), Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group.

Matsuzawa, T., & Yamakoshi, G. (1996). Comparison of chimpanzee material culture between Bossou and Nimba, West Africa. In A. E. Russon, K. A. Bard, & S. T. Parker (Eds.), Reaching into thought: The minds of the great apes. Cambridge University Press.

Matsuzawa, T., & Humle, T. (2011). Bossou: 33 Years. In Primatology Monographs (pp. 3-10). Springer Japan. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_2

Matsuzawa, T., et al. (2011a). Green corridor project: Planting trees in the savanna between Bossou and Nimba. In T. Matsuzawa, T. Humle, & Y. Sugiyama (Eds.), The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6_38

Matsuzawa, T., et al. (2011b). The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-4-431-53921-6

Sugiyama, Y., & Koman, J. (1979). Social structure and dynamics of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea. Primates, 20(3), 323-339. doi:10.1007/bf02373387

Sugiyama, Y. (1981). Observations on the population dynamics and behavior of wild chimpanzees at Bossou, Guinea, in 1979–1980. Primates, 22(4), 435-444. doi:10.1007/bf02381236

The chimpanzees of Bossou and Nimba. (2019). Green Corridor Project. https://www.greencorridor.info/

Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., …, & Boesch, C. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399(6737), 682-685. doi:10.1038/21415

Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. PLOS Climate, 3(2), e0000345. doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345


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