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= Site characteristics =
= Site characteristics =


Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve is situated in western Uganda, spanning Ntoroko and Kabarole districts and covering 548 km² (Samson 2012). Originally established as a game reserve in 1926, its primary purpose was to protect the large Uganda kob populations in the area (Lamprey & Michelmore 1996). Positioned within a Rift Valley landscape, the reserve is flanked by the Rwenzori Mountains, Kijura Escarpment, and Lake Albert, with an altitude starting at approximately 700 meters above sea level. The reserve's dominant vegetation consists of open acacia-combretum woodland and grassy savanna, interspersed with Borassus palm forests, riparian woodlands along watercourses, and extensive swamps near Lake Albert (Hunt & McGrew 2002). The main riverine canopy tree is Ugandan ironwood (''Cynometra alexandri''), followed by ''Millettia dura'' and ''Kigelia africana'', with an understory primarily made up of ''Beilschmiedia ugandensis'' (Hunt & Lee 2020; SCP records).
Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve is situated in western Uganda, spanning Ntoroko and Kabarole districts and covering 548 km² ([[#R01839|Samson 2012]]). Originally established as a game reserve in 1926, its primary purpose was to protect the large Uganda kob populations in the area ([[#R01832|Lamprey & Michelmore 1996]]). Positioned within a Rift Valley landscape, the reserve is flanked by the Rwenzori Mountains, Kijura Escarpment, and Lake Albert, with an altitude starting at approximately 700 meters above sea level. The reserve's dominant vegetation consists of open acacia-combretum woodland and grassy savanna, interspersed with Borassus palm forests, riparian woodlands along watercourses, and extensive swamps near Lake Albert ([[#R01831|Hunt & McGrew 2002]]). The main riverine canopy tree is Ugandan ironwood (''Cynometra alexandri''), followed by ''Millettia dura'' and ''Kigelia africana'', with an understory primarily made up of ''Beilschmiedia ugandensis'' ([[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]; SCP records).
The reserve supports a diverse array of wildlife, including elephants, buffaloes, Uganda kobs, waterbucks, warthogs, giant forest hogs, and hippopotamuses. It also boasts over 462 bird species and is home to various primates, including chimpanzees, baboons, vervet monkeys, red-tailed monkeys, and black-and-white colobus monkeys (UWA 2019). Four main communities surround the reserve: Karugutu-Kyabandara, Rwebisengo, Ntoroko fishing community, and Kasesenge-Kyakabaseke (UWA 2019).
The reserve supports a diverse array of wildlife, including elephants, buffaloes, Uganda kobs, waterbucks, warthogs, giant forest hogs, and hippopotamuses. It also boasts over 462 bird species and is home to various primates, including chimpanzees, baboons, vervet monkeys, red-tailed monkeys, and black-and-white colobus monkeys ([[#R01840|UWA 2019]]). Four main communities surround the reserve: Karugutu-Kyabandara, Rwebisengo, Ntoroko fishing community, and Kasesenge-Kyakabaseke ([[#R01840|UWA 2019]]).


'''Table 1. Basic site information for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve'''
'''Table 1. Basic site information for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve'''
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= Ape status =
= Ape status =


There are three known chimpanzee communities in the reserve (Hunt & Lee 2020): Mugiri community with roughly 150 chimpanzees; Nyabaroga community, which is speculated to be relatively safe and supporting about 50 individuals; and Muzizi community, where pant-hoots and chimp nests were observed in Muzizi River forest several times between 1996 and 1997. However subsequent visits to the same area in 2008, showed this forest block had disappeared due to illegal logging, so the status of chimpanzees here is unknown.
There are three known chimpanzee communities in the reserve ([[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]): Mugiri community with roughly 150 chimpanzees; Nyabaroga community, which is speculated to be relatively safe and supporting about 50 individuals; and Muzizi community, where pant-hoots and chimp nests were observed in Muzizi River forest several times between 1996 and 1997. However subsequent visits to the same area in 2008, showed this forest block had disappeared due to illegal logging, so the status of chimpanzees here is unknown.


'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve'''
'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve'''
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|Line transects
|Line transects
|Distance sampling (decay time unknown)
|Distance sampling (decay time unknown)
|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003
|[[#R01838|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003]]
|Survey classified site as a low density site. Only 60 nest building chimpanzees were estimated by study.
|Survey classified site as a low density site. Only 60 nest building chimpanzees were estimated by study.
|
|
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|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Sensitivity of habitats to climate variability, rainfall variations affecting frequency and intensity of fires (Patrick et al., 2012)
|Sensitivity of habitats to climate variability, rainfall variations affecting frequency and intensity of fires ([[#R01836|Patrick et al., 2012]])






Chimpanzees live in a relatively dry habitat affected by periodic droughts causing drying up of water points (UWA,2020)
Chimpanzees live in a relatively dry habitat affected by periodic droughts causing drying up of water points ([[#R01841|UWA,2020]])
|Ongoing (2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|-
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|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|The range of the Mugiri chimpanzees is limited to the northeast by tea estates (Samson 2012). Tea plantations have increased in coverage (Patrick et al.2012).
|The range of the Mugiri chimpanzees is limited to the northeast by tea estates ([[#R01839|Samson 2012]]). Tea plantations have increased in coverage ([[#R01836|Patrick et al.2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|-
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|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Peasant holdings at the top of the escarpment (Samson 2012).
|Peasant holdings at the top of the escarpment ([[#R01839|Samson 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|-
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|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Unintentional effect on chimpanzees. Poaching by organized groups particularly from Congo using snares, dogs, automatic weapons, spears (Patrick et al. 2012)
|Unintentional effect on chimpanzees. Poaching by organized groups particularly from Congo using snares, dogs, automatic weapons, spears ([[#R01836|Patrick et al. 2012]])
|1978-Ongoing (2024)
|1978-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|-
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|5.3.1 Subsistence logging
|5.3.1 Subsistence logging
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal logging for charcoal burning (Hunt & Lee 2020).
|Illegal logging for charcoal burning ([[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]).
|1996-Ongoing (2020)
|1996-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
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|5.3.2 Commercial logging
|5.3.2 Commercial logging
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|The Muzizi River forest block disappeared by 2008 due to deforestation from illegal logging (Hunt & Lee 2020).
|The Muzizi River forest block disappeared by 2008 due to deforestation from illegal logging ([[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]).
|1996-Ongoing (2020)
|1996-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|-
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|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present (unknown severity)
|Political instability involving Allied Democratic Front ADF counter response by Uganda Peoples Defense Force UPDF, with activities such as gunfire disrupt ranges of chimpanzees. Started around 1997 and peaked in 2000  (Hunt & Lee 2020; Patrick et al. 2012; Edroma et al. 1997).
|Political instability involving Allied Democratic Front ADF counter response by Uganda Peoples Defense Force UPDF, with activities such as gunfire disrupt ranges of chimpanzees. Started around 1997 and peaked in 2000  ([[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]; [[#R01836|Patrick et al. 2012]]; [[#R01829|Edroma et al. 1997]]).
|1997-2000
|1997-2000
|}
|}
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|4 Education & awareness
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Project takes in locals as volunteers and also employ local stuff to work as field assistants (Hunt & Lee, 2020).
|Project takes in locals as volunteers and also employ local stuff to work as field assistants ([[#R01830|Hunt & Lee, 2020]]).
|Semliki Chimpanzee Project
|Semliki Chimpanzee Project
|1996-Ongoing (2020)
|1996-Ongoing (2020)
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|5 Protection & restoration
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
|Management zones were created which include; Tourism, Administrative and Wilderness zones (UWA, 2020). Wilderness zones are established to protect critical habitat for endangered and vulnerable species such as chimpanzees.
|Management zones were created which include; Tourism, Administrative and Wilderness zones ([[#R01841|UWA, 2020]]). Wilderness zones are established to protect critical habitat for endangered and vulnerable species such as chimpanzees.
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Uganda Wildlife Authority
|Ongoing (2020)
|Ongoing (2020)
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|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|2020
|2020
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|2.2 Lack of staff
|Hunt & Lee 2020; UWA 2020
|[[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]; [[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|2012
|2012
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|2.3 General lack of funding
|Hunt & Lee 2020; UWA 2020
|[[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]; [[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|2012
|2012
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|2020
|2020
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|2020
|2020
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|Hunt & Lee 2020: Patrick et al. 2012
|[[#R01830|Hunt & Lee 2020]]: [[#R01836|Patrick et al. 2012]]
|2012
|2012
|-
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Patrick et al. 2012
|[[#R01836|Patrick et al. 2012]]
|1997
|1997
|}
|}
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|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Sufficient staff
|2.1 Sufficient staff
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|
|
|-
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Sufficient funding
|2.2 Sufficient funding
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|
|
|-
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|
|
|-
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4 Institutional support
|4.2 Strong government support
|4.2 Strong government support
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|
|
|-
|-
|
|
|Other (Elevate status from Wildlife reserve to National Park))
|Other (Elevate status from Wildlife reserve to National Park))
|UWA 2020
|[[#R01841|UWA 2020]]
|2020
|2020
|}
|}
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|
|
|
|
|Webster et al. 2014
|[[#R01844|Webster et al. 2014]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew et al. 2007
|[[#R01834|McGrew et al. 2007]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|Payne et al. 2008
|[[#R01837|Payne et al. 2008]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|Samson 2012
|[[#R01839|Samson 2012]]
|
|
|
|
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|
|
|
|
|McGrew & Hunt 2011
|[[#R01833|McGrew & Hunt 2011]]
|
|
|
|
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= References =
= References =


Edroma, E., Rosen, N. and Miller, P. 1997. (eds) Conserving the Chimpanzees of Uganda. Population and habitat viability assessment for Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN. <br>
<span id="R01829"></span>Edroma, E., Rosen, N., & Miller, P. (Eds.). (1997). Conserving the chimpanzees of Uganda: Population and habitat viability assessment for Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN.
Hunt, K. D. & Lee, G.J. (2020). "The Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve". Bloomington, Indiana, United States: Indiana University: Semliki Chimpanzee Project. https://semliki.sitehost.iu.edu/. Retrieved on  5th November 2024. <br>
 
Hunt, K. D., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Chimpanzees in the dry habitats of Assirik, Senegal and Semliki wildlife reserve, Uganda. Behavioural diversity in chimpanzees and bonobos, 1, 35-51. <br>
<span id="R01830"></span>Hunt, K. D., & Lee, G. J. (2020). The Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. Semliki Chimpanzee Project, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States. https://semliki.sitehost.iu.edu/
Lamprey, R. H., & Michelmore, F. (1996). The wildlife protected areas of Uganda: preliminary aerial survey results and their assessment plus initial recommendations. Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife, and Antiquities. <br>
 
McGrew, W. C., & Hunt, K. D. (2011). < Note> Chimpanzee Pith-Folding at Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 18(2), 15-18. <br>
<span id="R01831"></span>Hunt, K. D., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Chimpanzees in the dry habitats of Assirik, Senegal and Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. In ''Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos'' (pp. 35-51). Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511606397.005 doi:10.1017/cbo9780511606397.005]
McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., & Hunt, K. D. (2007). Etho-archaeology of manual laterality: Well digging by wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica, 78(4), 240-244. <br>
 
McLennan, M. R. (2011). < Note> Preliminary Observations of Hand-Clasp Grooming by Chimpanzees at Bulindi, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 18(2), 18-20. <br>
<span id="R01832"></span>Lamprey, R. H., & Michelmore, F. (1996). The wildlife protected areas of Uganda: Preliminary aerial survey results and their assessment plus initial recommendations. Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife, and Antiquities.
Patrick, R., Patrick, D., & Hunt, K. D. (2012). Long term changes at Toro-Semliki wildlife reserve. Long-Term Changes in Africa’s Rift Valley., 56-69.<br>
 
Payne, C. L. R., Webster, T. H., & Hunt, K. D. (2008). < Note> Coprophagy by the semi-habituated chimpanzees of Semliki, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 15(2), 29-32.<br>
<span id="R01833"></span>McGrew, W. C., & Hunt, K. D. (2011). Chimpanzee Pith-Folding at Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. ''Pan Africa News'', 18(2), 15-18. [https://doi.org/10.5134/152163 doi:10.5134/152163]
Plumptre, A. J., Cox, D., & Mugume, S. (2003). The status of chimpanzees in Uganda. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series No. 2. Wildlife Conservation Society <br>
 
Samson, D. R. (2012). The chimpanzee nest quantified: morphology and ecology of arboreal sleeping platforms within the dry habitat site of Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Primates, 53, 357-364. <br>
<span id="R01834"></span>McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., & Hunt, K. D. (2007). Etho-Archaeology of Manual Laterality: Well Digging by Wild Chimpanzees. ''Folia Primatologica'', 78(4), 240-244. [https://doi.org/10.1159/000102319 doi:10.1159/000102319]
UWA. (2020). Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve General Management Plan 2020/21 – 2029/30.  Kampala, Uganda <br>
 
Uganda Wildlife Authority (2019). "Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve". Kampala, Uganda. https://ugandawildlife.org/wildlifereserves/toro-semliki/. Retrieved on 5th November 2024. <br>
<span id="R01835"></span>McLennan, M. R. (2011). Preliminary Observations of Hand-Clasp Grooming by Chimpanzees at Bulindi, Uganda. ''Pan Africa News'', 18(2), 18-20. [https://doi.org/10.5134/152162 doi:10.5134/152162]
WCS. (2021). Human Livelihoods. https://programs.wcs.org/uganda/Initiatives/Human-Livelihoods.aspx. Retrieved on 20th November, 2024. <br>
 
Webster, T. H., Hodson, P. R., & Hunt, K. D. (2009). < Note> Grooming Hand-Clasp by Chimpanzees of the Mugiri Community, Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 16(1), 5-7. <br>
<span id="R01836"></span>Patrick, R., Patrick, D., & Hunt, K. D. (2012). Long-term changes at Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. In D. J. McC. (Ed.), Long-term changes in Africa’s Rift Valley (pp. 56–69).
Webster, T. H., McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., Payne, C. L., & Hunt, K. D. (2014). Selective insectivory at Toro-Semliki, Uganda: Comparative analyses suggest no ‘savanna’chimpanzee pattern. Journal of human evolution, 71, 20-27. <br>
 
<span id="R01837"></span>Payne, C. L. R., Webster, T. H., & Hunt, K. D. (2008). Coprophagy by the semi-habituated chimpanzees of Semliki, Uganda. ''Pan Africa News'', 15(2), 29-32. [https://doi.org/10.5134/143493 doi:10.5134/143493]
 
<span id="R01838"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Cox, D., & Mugume, S. (2003). The status of chimpanzees in Uganda. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series No. 2. Wildlife Conservation Society. [http://programs.wcs.org/portals/49/media/file/AR_Tech_Rpt_2_Uganda_Chimps.PDF link]
 
<span id="R01839"></span>Samson, D. R. (2012). The chimpanzee nest quantified: morphology and ecology of arboreal sleeping platforms within the dry habitat site of Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. ''Primates'', 53(4), 357-364. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-012-0310-x doi:10.1007/s10329-012-0310-x]
 
<span id="R01840"></span>Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2019). Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. https://ugandawildlife.org/wildlifereserves/toro-semliki/
 
<span id="R01841"></span>Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2020). Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve general management plan 2020/21–2029/30. Kampala, Uganda.
 
<span id="R01842"></span>WCS. (2021). Human livelihoods. https://programs.wcs.org/uganda/Initiatives/Human-Livelihoods.aspx
 
<span id="R01843"></span>Webster, T. H., Hodson, P. R., & Hunt, K. D. (2009). Grooming Hand-Clasp by Chimpanzees of the Mugiri Community, Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. ''Pan Africa News'', 16(1), 5-7. [https://doi.org/10.5134/143502 doi:10.5134/143502]
 
<span id="R01844"></span>Webster, T. H., McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., Payne, C. L. R., & Hunt, K. D. (2014). Selective insectivory at Toro-Semliki, Uganda: Comparative analyses suggest no ‘savanna’ chimpanzee pattern. ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 71, 20-27. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.02.005 doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.02.005]






'''Page created by: '''Steven Joel Basiibye''' Date:''' 2024-11-01
'''Page created by: '''Steven Joel Basiibye''' Date:''' 2024-11-01

Latest revision as of 16:31, 12 October 2026

East Africa > Uganda > Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

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Summary

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  • Eastern chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) are present in Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve.
  • The population size was estimated at approximately 66 individuals in 1999.
  • The population trend is unknown.



Site characteristics

Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve is situated in western Uganda, spanning Ntoroko and Kabarole districts and covering 548 km² (Samson 2012). Originally established as a game reserve in 1926, its primary purpose was to protect the large Uganda kob populations in the area (Lamprey & Michelmore 1996). Positioned within a Rift Valley landscape, the reserve is flanked by the Rwenzori Mountains, Kijura Escarpment, and Lake Albert, with an altitude starting at approximately 700 meters above sea level. The reserve's dominant vegetation consists of open acacia-combretum woodland and grassy savanna, interspersed with Borassus palm forests, riparian woodlands along watercourses, and extensive swamps near Lake Albert (Hunt & McGrew 2002). The main riverine canopy tree is Ugandan ironwood (Cynometra alexandri), followed by Millettia dura and Kigelia africana, with an understory primarily made up of Beilschmiedia ugandensis (Hunt & Lee 2020; SCP records). The reserve supports a diverse array of wildlife, including elephants, buffaloes, Uganda kobs, waterbucks, warthogs, giant forest hogs, and hippopotamuses. It also boasts over 462 bird species and is home to various primates, including chimpanzees, baboons, vervet monkeys, red-tailed monkeys, and black-and-white colobus monkeys (UWA 2019). Four main communities surround the reserve: Karugutu-Kyabandara, Rwebisengo, Ntoroko fishing community, and Kasesenge-Kyakabaseke (UWA 2019).

Table 1. Basic site information for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Species Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii
Area 548 km²
Coordinates Lat: 0.89722 , Lon: 30.36333
Type of site Conservation area
Habitat types Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Savanna, Shrubland, Grassland
Type of governance Governance by government

Types of sites Governance types Habitat types

Ape status

There are three known chimpanzee communities in the reserve (Hunt & Lee 2020): Mugiri community with roughly 150 chimpanzees; Nyabaroga community, which is speculated to be relatively safe and supporting about 50 individuals; and Muzizi community, where pant-hoots and chimp nests were observed in Muzizi River forest several times between 1996 and 1997. However subsequent visits to the same area in 2008, showed this forest block had disappeared due to illegal logging, so the status of chimpanzees here is unknown.

Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Species Year Occurrence Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day) Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI) Abundance estimate (95% CI) Survey area Sampling method Analytical framework Source Comments A.P.E.S. database ID
Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii 1999 Present 66.06 (40-90) Toro Semliki WR Line transects Distance sampling (decay time unknown) Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003 Survey classified site as a low density site. Only 60 nest building chimpanzees were estimated by study.

Sampling methods Analytical frameworks

Threats

Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Category Specific threats Threat level Description Year of threat
11 Climate change & severe weather 11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration Present (unknown severity) Sensitivity of habitats to climate variability, rainfall variations affecting frequency and intensity of fires (Patrick et al., 2012)


Chimpanzees live in a relatively dry habitat affected by periodic droughts causing drying up of water points (UWA,2020)

Ongoing (2012)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops Present (unknown severity) The range of the Mugiri chimpanzees is limited to the northeast by tea estates (Samson 2012). Tea plantations have increased in coverage (Patrick et al.2012). Ongoing (2012)
2 Agriculture & aquaculture 2.1.2 Small-holder farming Present (unknown severity) Peasant holdings at the top of the escarpment (Samson 2012). Ongoing (2012)
3 Energy production & mining 3.1 Oil & gas drilling Present (unknown severity) Since 1997 seismic surveys in the reserve and outside the reserve are reported. 1997-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use 5.1.2 Unintentional effects Present (unknown severity) Unintentional effect on chimpanzees. Poaching by organized groups particularly from Congo using snares, dogs, automatic weapons, spears (Patrick et al. 2012) 1978-Ongoing (2024)
5 Biological resource use 5.3.1 Subsistence logging Present (unknown severity) Illegal logging for charcoal burning (Hunt & Lee 2020). 1996-Ongoing (2020)
5 Biological resource use 5.3.2 Commercial logging Present (unknown severity) The Muzizi River forest block disappeared by 2008 due to deforestation from illegal logging (Hunt & Lee 2020). 1996-Ongoing (2020)
6 Human intrusions & disturbance 6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises Present (unknown severity) Political instability involving Allied Democratic Front ADF counter response by Uganda Peoples Defense Force UPDF, with activities such as gunfire disrupt ranges of chimpanzees. Started around 1997 and peaked in 2000 (Hunt & Lee 2020; Patrick et al. 2012; Edroma et al. 1997). 1997-2000

Threats

Conservation activities

Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Category Specific activity Description Implementing organization(s) Year of activity
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms WCS secured support through the USAID WILD project to work with communities next to the Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. The aim was to reduce pressure on natural resources and elicit community support for conservation efforts. This is done through engaging environmentally friendly tourism-related enterprises such as beekeeping, art and crafts, music, dance and drama to generate income. Wildlife Conservation Society, USAID WILD project, Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2007)
2 Counter-wildlife crime 2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols Increased patrol efforts and improved report by communities to curb poaching. Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2012)
4 Education & awareness 4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management Project takes in locals as volunteers and also employ local stuff to work as field assistants (Hunt & Lee, 2020). Semliki Chimpanzee Project 1996-Ongoing (2020)
5 Protection & restoration 5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat Management zones were created which include; Tourism, Administrative and Wilderness zones (UWA, 2020). Wilderness zones are established to protect critical habitat for endangered and vulnerable species such as chimpanzees. Uganda Wildlife Authority Ongoing (2020)
5 Protection & restoration 5.2 Legally protect ape habitat Proposal to elevate status from Wildlife reserve to National Park, so as to afford more protection to area. Currently it is classified as a wildlife reserve. Uganda Wildlife Authority and Uganda government 1926-Ongoing (2026)

Conservation activities

Challenges

Table 5. Challenges reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Challenges Specific challenges Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Lack of capacity/training UWA 2020 2020
2 Resources and capacity 2.2 Lack of staff Hunt & Lee 2020; UWA 2020 2012
2 Resources and capacity 2.3 General lack of funding Hunt & Lee 2020; UWA 2020 2012
2 Resources and capacity 2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation UWA 2020 2020
3 Engaged community 3.1 General lack of community engagement or support UWA 2020 2020
4 Institutional support 4.1 Lack of law enforcement Hunt & Lee 2020: Patrick et al. 2012 2012
6 Safety and stability 6.3 Civil unrest/war Patrick et al. 2012 1997

Challenges

Enablers

Table 6. Enablers reported for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Enablers Specific enablers Source Year(s)
2 Resources and capacity 2.1 Sufficient staff UWA 2020
2 Resources and capacity 2.2 Sufficient funding UWA 2020
3 Engaged community 3.6 Local community engagement and support UWA 2020
4 Institutional support 4.2 Strong government support UWA 2020
Other (Elevate status from Wildlife reserve to National Park)) UWA 2020 2020

Enablers

Research activities

Researchers from the University of Indiana have been studying chimpanzees in the riverine forest at Mugiri under The Semliki Chimpanzee Project, founded in 1996.

Documented behaviours

Table 7. Behaviours documented for Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve

Category Behavior Observation type Prevalence Observation dates Source Habituation Species Comment
Selective insectivory Webster et al. 2014
Well digging McGrew et al. 2007
Coprophagy Payne et al. 2008
Grooming Hand-Clasp Webster et al. 2019
Chimpanzee nesting (morphology and ecology of arboreal sleeping platforms) Samson 2012
Chimpanzee pith folding McGrew & Hunt 2011

Behaviours

Exposure to climate change impacts

External links

References

Edroma, E., Rosen, N., & Miller, P. (Eds.). (1997). Conserving the chimpanzees of Uganda: Population and habitat viability assessment for Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN.

Hunt, K. D., & Lee, G. J. (2020). The Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. Semliki Chimpanzee Project, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, United States. https://semliki.sitehost.iu.edu/

Hunt, K. D., & McGrew, W. C. (2002). Chimpanzees in the dry habitats of Assirik, Senegal and Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. In Behavioural Diversity in Chimpanzees and Bonobos (pp. 35-51). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511606397.005

Lamprey, R. H., & Michelmore, F. (1996). The wildlife protected areas of Uganda: Preliminary aerial survey results and their assessment plus initial recommendations. Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife, and Antiquities.

McGrew, W. C., & Hunt, K. D. (2011). Chimpanzee Pith-Folding at Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 18(2), 15-18. doi:10.5134/152163

McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., & Hunt, K. D. (2007). Etho-Archaeology of Manual Laterality: Well Digging by Wild Chimpanzees. Folia Primatologica, 78(4), 240-244. doi:10.1159/000102319

McLennan, M. R. (2011). Preliminary Observations of Hand-Clasp Grooming by Chimpanzees at Bulindi, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 18(2), 18-20. doi:10.5134/152162

Patrick, R., Patrick, D., & Hunt, K. D. (2012). Long-term changes at Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. In D. J. McC. (Ed.), Long-term changes in Africa’s Rift Valley (pp. 56–69).

Payne, C. L. R., Webster, T. H., & Hunt, K. D. (2008). Coprophagy by the semi-habituated chimpanzees of Semliki, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 15(2), 29-32. doi:10.5134/143493

Plumptre, A. J., Cox, D., & Mugume, S. (2003). The status of chimpanzees in Uganda. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series No. 2. Wildlife Conservation Society. link

Samson, D. R. (2012). The chimpanzee nest quantified: morphology and ecology of arboreal sleeping platforms within the dry habitat site of Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Primates, 53(4), 357-364. doi:10.1007/s10329-012-0310-x

Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2019). Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve. https://ugandawildlife.org/wildlifereserves/toro-semliki/

Uganda Wildlife Authority. (2020). Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve general management plan 2020/21–2029/30. Kampala, Uganda.

WCS. (2021). Human livelihoods. https://programs.wcs.org/uganda/Initiatives/Human-Livelihoods.aspx

Webster, T. H., Hodson, P. R., & Hunt, K. D. (2009). Grooming Hand-Clasp by Chimpanzees of the Mugiri Community, Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve, Uganda. Pan Africa News, 16(1), 5-7. doi:10.5134/143502

Webster, T. H., McGrew, W. C., Marchant, L. F., Payne, C. L. R., & Hunt, K. D. (2014). Selective insectivory at Toro-Semliki, Uganda: Comparative analyses suggest no ‘savanna’ chimpanzee pattern. Journal of Human Evolution, 71, 20-27. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.02.005


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