The APES Atlas - User contributions [en]

Tayna Nature Reserve

2026-10-15T23:42:59Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Tayna Nature Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-0.346968, 28.933953~[[Tayna Nature Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'', ''Gorilla beringei graueri''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (‘’Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii’’) & Grauer's gorillas (‘’Gorilla beringei graueri’’) are present in Tayna Nature Reserve.
* The population estimates are unknown.
* The great ape population trend is decreasing.
* The site has a total size of 900 km².
* Key threats to great apes include subsistence hunting, expansion of land for agriculture, wood harvesting, and artisanal mining.
* Conservation activities have focused on community engagement, gorilla rehabilitation and reintroduction, and conservation education.

= Site characteristics =

Tayna Nature Reserve is located in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, within the transition zone between lowland forests and the Congo river to the west, and the Albertine Rift to the east ([https://gracegorillas.org/2021/07/02/great-ape-survey-tayna-nature-reserve/ GRACE 2021a]). The reserve is not only important as one of the last strongholds for the critically endangered Gauer's gorilla, but it also sustains a wide species diversity, including endemic species. In addition the Grauer's gorilla and eastern chimpanzees, other species of conservation concern present at the site include owl faced monkeys, L'Hoest's monkeys, golden cats, Ruwenzori leopards, giant pangolins, forest elephants, aardvarks, red river hogs, giant forest hogs, and okapis ([[#R01810|Vwirasihikya & Matsitsi 2003]]). The reserve was identified by [[#R01808|Plumptre et al. (2016)]] as one of four priority areas for the conservation of Grauer's gorilla outside of national parks within the entire Albertine Rift.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'', ''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|-
|Area
|900 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -0.346968 , Lon: 28.933953
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Nature Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
[[File: Gorilla_and_infant_Tayna_GRACE.JPG | 400px | thumb| none | Gorilla adult with infant © GRACE]]
= Ape status =

Tayna holds one of the most important gorilla populations and represents a priority site for conservation efforts ([[#R01806|Plumptre et al. 2015a]], [[#R02323|Maldonado et al. 2012]]). Survey information has been very limited in the past due to insecurity in the region. In 2012, a survey was halted after only a few days due to unresolved conflict between the Reserve and the survey team. In 2021, the first survey to cover the entire reserve was conducted. Survey teams recorded 305 gorillas nests, 280 chimpanzee nests, and 25 signs of other animals, including 5 species of monkeys, pangolin, forest buffalo, African grey parrot, leopard, and a single Okapi footprint ([[#R01805|Fawcett & Kabuyaya Mbeke 2021]]).

The gorilla population at Tayna is also considered a priority in terms of the preservation of genetic diversity (Valk et al. 2018). Based on historical museum specimens and modern faecal samples, Grauer's gorilla populations have experienced a rapid loss of genetic diversity. This decline is attributed to the loss of peripheral populations rather than a decrease in genetic diversity in the core range of the species (Valk et al. 2018). Tayna is located at the northeastern extreme of the Grauer landscape, potentially representing a unique genetic profile.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2023
|Present
|
|
|
|Tayna Nature Reserve
|Camera trap
|
|
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2021
|Present
|
|
|
|Tayna Nature Reserve (900 km²)
|Strip transect
|
|[[#R01805|Fawcett & Kabuyaya Mbeke 2021]]
|
|COD0208
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2021
|Present
|
|
|
|Tayna Nature Reserve (900 km²)
|Strip transect
|
|[[#R01805|Fawcett & Kabuyaya Mbeke 2021]]
|
|COD0208
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2012
|
|
|
|185-210
|Tayna Nature Reserve (906 km²)
|Survey data, Line transects, Partial count
|
|[[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]]
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2011-2015
|
|
|0.289
|541 (121-2414)
|Tayna-Kisimba-Ikobo (1,869 km²)
|Line transects & recces
|
|[[#R01808|Plumptre et al. 2016]]
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2001-2002
|
|
|1.00
|450.0
|Tayna Gorilla Reserve
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01810|Vwirasihikya & Matsitsi 2003]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The socioeconomic depression arising from over a decade of civil war placed enormous pressure on the forest resources and fauna in the region ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]]). In addition, since 1996, the entire Grauer's gorilla range has been consumed in conflict, resulting in a breakdown of wildlife protection activities. Key ongoing threats at the site include agricultural expansion (Ayebare et al. 2018), subsistence hunting and wood harvesting, and mining ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]], [[#R01808|Plumptre et al. 2016]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Subsistence agriculture ([[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Artisanal mining for minerals such as cassiterite, gold and coltan ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]], Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022).
|2015-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Bushmeat hunting for subsistence (Fawcett, K., pers. comm. 2022). Furthermore, several gorillas were killed (and an infant captured) in the Tayna Nature Reserve between 2004 and 2007, as reported by Nixon, S. ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]]).
|2004-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Logging for local subsistence, e.g., gathering fuelwood, timber harvesting for construction (Fawcett, K., pers. comm. 2022, [[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|Present (unknown severity)
|Ebola outbreak that lasted 18 months, not directly inside the reserve, but in eastern DRC ([[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|2017-2019
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Since the late 1990s community leaders have led an effort to protect the area; in fact, the site was created from land donated by community members ([https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ GRACE]). By protecting the land, local communities aimed to prevent the loss of local forests, wildlife, and sacred cultural sites to agricultural expansion and commercial cattle ranchers ([https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ GRACE]). The site was officially declared the Tayna Nature Reserve in 2006 by the government of DRC. The reserve is managed by the community in partnership with the Gorilla Rehabilitation and Conservation Education (GRACE) center, and the ICCN.

Conservation activities at the reserve are divided into four main strategies: 1) Gorilla rehabilitation, 2) Gorilla conservation (reintroduction of rehabilitated gorillas back into the wild), 3) Conservation education, and 4) Community engagement, e.g., assisting local communities with finding sustainable solutions for co-existing with wildlife, promoting local conservation leadership and building pride ([https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#our-programs GRACE]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|GRACE supports domestic livestock initiatives started by local women’s groups, including a guinea pig program (https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#our-programs).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Regular patrols and law enforcement activities are reported (D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|GRACE provides conservation education programs with schoolchildren and local communities ([[#R02065|GRACE]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Extensive training of local community members to lead field data collection, e.g., monitoring gorillas and other wildlife, as well as human activity signs in the reserve ([[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Conservation outreach through a radio program; the Tayna radio station estimates its audience is 60,000 people ([[#R02355|GRACE 2021b]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a Nature Reserve.
|
|2006-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Forest rehabilitation and protection activities are reported (D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.9 Rehabilitate injured/orphaned apes
|Sanctuary for rescued orphans and illegally captured gorillas, which are confiscated by the ICCN; GRACE cares for the rehabilitation and release outside the reserve, within the Grauer's range ([[#R02065|GRACE]]). Currently GRACE is working towards the release of gorillas in Virunga National Park to reinforce the functionally extinct population at the park (Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Jobs brought to local communities through conservation (Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022, [[#R02067|GRACE]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Many community engagement activities focus on women to support their empowerment, and because they're the primary users of natural resources. For example, GRACE is working with women’s groups to build and install more efficient stoves to significantly reduce the amount of wood needed per household. ([[#R02065|GRACE]]).In addition, local communities are supported in developing new income sources, such as selling local products and managing their own forests, and are provided with services such as health care and wellbeing (D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2022-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.5 Anticipated disadvantages/costs created by conservation activities (e.g., restricted access/resource use)
|Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Plumptre et al. 2015
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

There is a permanent presence of monitoring teams in the Tayna Nature Reserve led by the community management authority RGT in partnership with GRACE. Damien Caillaud, Associate Professor at UC Davis is a GRACE science advisor for this work.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02324|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02324|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|20.6
|21.7
|21.4
|21.9
|23
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1443
|1427
|1476
|1383
|1502
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|9.9
|15.7
|16.9
|20.3
|13.9
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|7.1
|8.2
|9.4
|8.1
|11.9
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4
|0
|2
|0.06
|4
|0.15
|6.5
|0.13
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1.5
|0.02
|1.75
|1.01
|1.5
|0.23
|4.5
|0.74
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.56
|30
|0.57
|29
|0.59
|29
|0.36
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Tayna.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Tayna Nature Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Tayna.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Tayna Nature Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ GRACE website]

[https://www.facebook.com/gracegorillas GRACE Facebook]

= References =

<span id="R01805"></span>Fawcett, K., & Kabuyaya, M. J. (2021). Survey of Great Apes (Gorilla beringei graueri, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Tayna Nature Reserve, Eastern DR Congo. GRACE Report.

<span id="R01806"></span>Plumptre, A.J., Ayebare, S. & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015a). Priority Areas for Conservation in the Maiko, Tayna, Kahuzi Biega Landscape. Unpublished Report for USAID and USFWS.

<span id="R01807"></span>Plumptre, A.J., Nixon, S., Critchlow, R., Vieilledent, G., Nishuli, R., Kirkby, A., Williamson, E.A., Hall, J.S. & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015b). Status of Grauer’s gorilla and chimpanzees in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and current distribution and abundance. Unpublished report to Arcus Foundation, USAID and US Fish and Wildlife Service. [https://doi.org/10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000 doi:10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000]

<span id="R01808"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Nixon, S., Kujirakwinja, D. K., Vieilledent, G., Critchlow, R., Williamson, E. A., …, & Hall, J. S. (2016). Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. ''PLOS ONE'', 11(10), e0162697. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162697 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162697]

<span id="R01809"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Ayebare, S., Kujirakwinja, D., & Segan, D. (2020). Conservation planning for Africa's Albertine Rift: conserving a biodiverse region in the face of multiple threats. ''Oryx'', 55(2), 302-310. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605319000218 doi:10.1017/s0030605319000218]

<span id="R01810"></span>Vwirasihikya, K.P. & Matsitsi, S.D. (2003). Census in the Tayna Gorilla Reserve. Gorilla Journal 26. https://www.berggorilla.org/en/journal/issues/journal-no-26/article-view/census-in-the-tayna-gorilla-reserve/ [https://www.berggorilla.org/en/journal/issues/journal-26-12003/article-view/census-in-the-tayna-gorilla-reserve/ link]

<span id="R02323"></span>Maldonado, O., Aveling, C., Cox, D., Nixon, S., Nishuli, R., Merlo, D., Pintea, L. & Williamson, E.A. (2012). Grauer’s Gorillas and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko, Tayna and Itombwe Landscape): Conservation Action Plan 2012–2022. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation & Tourism, Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature & the Jane Goodall Institute. 66pp https://www.iucngreatapes.org/grauers-gorillas-and-chimpanzees [http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/pdf/Eastern_DRC_CAP.pdf link]

<span id="R02324"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02352"></span>GRACE 2021a. https://gracegorillas.org/2021/07/02/great-ape-survey-tayna-nature-reserve/

<span id="R02065"></span>GRACE. https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#our-programs [https://web.archive.org/web/20250613082637/http://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ link]

<span id="R02355"></span>GRACE 2021b. https://gracegorillas.org/2021/02/26/gorilla-conservation-on-the-radio/

<span id="R02067"></span>GRACE. https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#tab-4914187cd87ca1fa3fe

'''Page created by: '''Dr. Katie Fawcett & APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-03-23

Zwedru Proposed Protected Area

2026-10-15T21:55:21Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Liberia]] > [[Zwedru Proposed Protected Area]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zwedru_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zwedru_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zwedru_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zwedru_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zwedru_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|6.32, -8.40~[[Zwedru Proposed Protected Area]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are likely to be present in Zwedru Proposed Protected Area.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 637.15 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are hunting, large-scale mining and commercial logging.
* Zwedru Proposed Protected Area has been designated a Key Biodiversity Area (KBA) and an International Bird Area (IBA).

= Site characteristics =

Zwedru Proposed Protected Area is located 20 km west of the town Zwedru – the capital of Grand Gedeh county - on the northern border between Liberia and Côte D’Ivoire. It has been designated an IBA and a KBA, because it is the only known site where the critically endangered Liberian greenbul, ''Phyllastrephus leucolepis'', has been reported ([[#R01987|Johnson 2015]]). No information about other surveys at this site could be found. During the nationwide survey in 2010-2012 ([[#R01989|Tweh et al. 2014]]), the survey teams found fresh and old chimpanzee nests three kilometres from the border of Zwedru Proposed Protected Area, on the north-western boundary of the site (Junker unpubl. data).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|637.15 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 6.32 , Lon: -8.40
|-
|Type of site
|Proposed protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

A survey of indicator species was undertaken in 2005 (FFI 2005). This was a collaborative effort of Fauna & Flora International (FFI) the FDA, Environmental Protection Agency of Liberia (EPA) and the Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs (MPEA). However, no further details on this survey could be found.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010-2012
|Present
|
|
|
|Zwedru Proposed Protected Area
|Other
|
|[[#R01988|Junker et al. 2015]] (Fig. 6A, Appendix B)
|The site itself was not surveyed, estimate based on a nationwide chimpanzee abundance model
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The entire proposed protected area is covered by Mineral Exploration Licenses (MEL) for gold, diamonds and other minerals except for iron ore owned by Superior Mineral Resources Inc. ([[#R01987|Johnson 2015]]). MEL’s entail that after a proposed exploration program has been handed to the Minister of Land, Mines, and Energy, the company commences exploration ([[#R01990|Wilson et al. 2017]]). Zwedru Proposed Protected Area overlapped with illegally issued Private-Use Permit (PUP) for commercial logging. Private Use Permits were a type of logging licence designed to allow private land owners to cut trees on their property, but which were reportedly subject to misuse by commercial logging companies. After investigations by Global Witness ([[#R01986|Global Witness 2013]]) much public outcry and extensive media coverage, PUPs have now largely been rescinded ([[#R01987|Johnson 2015]]). Moderate amounts of hunting signs were also recorded on two line transects about 3 km south-west of Zwedru Proposed Protected Area (Junker unpubl. data).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Mining for gold, diamonds and other minerals, except for iron ore ([[#R01987|Johnson 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Hunting signs recorded (Junker unpubl. data).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Area overlapped with Private-Use Permits, which have been withdrawn ([[#R01986|Global Witness 2013]], [[#R01987|Johnson 2015]]).
|2013-2015
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

No conservation activities have been reported for the site.

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

No information on research activities has been documented.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02349|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02349|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.5
|26.6
|26.6
|26.7
|27.8
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1943
|1960
|2017
|1994
|2082
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|22.4
|25.1
|23.7
|27
|24.9
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6
|9.5
|9.1
|9.6
|13
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Zwedru Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|1.5
|1.14
|2
|1.23
|3
|1.13
|9.5
|1.23
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|11
|100
|9
|100
|16
|100
|18
|100
|-
|River flood
|1.75
|0.64
|3.5
|4.24
|3.25
|4.07
|5.5
|3.14
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.09
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.51
|30
|0.49
|29
|0.51
|29
|0.54
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Zwedru.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Zwedru Proposed Protected Area]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Zwedru.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Zwedru Proposed Protected Area]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01986"></span>Global Witness. (2013). Avoiding the Riptide: Liberia must Enforce its Forest Laws to Prevent a New Wave of Illegal and Destructive Logging Contracts. Global Witness.

<span id="R01987"></span>Johnson S. 2015. Aggregated Biodiversity Offsets: A Roadmap for Liberia’s Mining Sector. Unpublished report by the World Bank Group (WBG) and Program On Forests (PROFOR).

<span id="R01988"></span>Junker, J., Boesch, C., Freeman, T., Mundry, R., Stephens, C., & Kühl, H. S. (2015). Integrating wildlife conservation with conflicting economic land-use goals in a West African biodiversity hotspot. ''Basic and Applied Ecology'', 16(8), 690-702. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2015.07.002 doi:10.1016/j.baae.2015.07.002]

<span id="R01989"></span>Tweh, C. G., Lormie, M. M., Kouakou, C. Y., Hillers, A., Kühl, H. S., & Junker, J. (2015). Conservation status of chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus and other large mammals in Liberia: a nationwide survey. ''Oryx'', 49(4), 710-718. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605313001191 doi:10.1017/s0030605313001191]

<span id="R01990"></span>Wilson, S. T. K., Wang, H., Kabenge, M., & Qi, X. (2017). The mining sector of Liberia: current practices and environmental challenges. ''Environmental Science and Pollution Research'', 24(23), 18711-18720. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9647-4 doi:10.1007/s11356-017-9647-4]

<span id="R02349"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-10-28

Zone Humide d'Ebogo

2026-10-15T21:55:20Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[Zone Humide d'Ebogo]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zone_Humide_d'Ebogo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zone_Humide_d'Ebogo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zone_Humide_d'Ebogo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zone_Humide_d'Ebogo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zone_Humide_d'Ebogo?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|3.397017, 11.462335~[[Zone Humide d'Ebogo]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') and western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in Zone Humide d'Ebogo.
* The population sizes are unknown.
* The population trends are unknown.
* The site has a total size of 30.97 km².
* Forest loss and forest degradation due to wood harvesting, agriculture and collection of non-timber forest products are some of the known threats in the site.
* Conservation activities are unknown.
* The site was designated a Ramsar site in 2012.

= Site characteristics =

The site is located about 40 km south of Yaoundé, the capital city of Cameroon. The area supports several IUCN Red-Listed plant species including the African Pearwood (''Baillonella toxisperma''), Sapele (''Entandrophragma cylindricum'') and Ebony (''Diospyros crassiflora''). It also supports nationally important animal species such as the Nile Monitor (''Varanus niloticus'') and the African Python (''Python sebae'') as well as over 100 waterbird species. The temporarily flooded marshes serve as food and breeding ground for waterbirds. It was designated as a [[#R01984|Ramsar site in 2012]]. The forest also supports a rich diversity of non-timber forest products important to the local population both as a source of food and as a cultural heritage ([https://rsis.ramsar.org/fr/ris/2068 Ramsar 2012]). The area is surrounded by the Mbalyamo Forest Reserve.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|30.97 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 3.397017 , Lon: 11.462335
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Forest Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical swamp forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|
|
|
|
|
|Zone Humide d'Ebogo
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|
|
|
|
|
|Zone Humide d'Ebogo
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Built areas around the eastern and western boundaries of the site ([[#R01983|Liliane et al. 2022]]).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Agriculture is a major cause of forest degradation in and around the site ([[#R01983|Liliane et al. 2022]]).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Collection of NFTPs for food and medicine ([[#R01983|Liliane et al. 2022]]).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Wood harvesting ([[#R01983|Liliane et al. 2022]]).
|Ongoing (2022)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is protected internationally as a Ramsar site since 2012, but the management plan and national authority for the site are unknown ([[#R01985|UNEP-WCMC 2023]]).
|
|2012-Ongoing (2026)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02348|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2°C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3°C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02348|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [°C]
|23.8
|25
|24.9
|25.2
|26.2
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2228
|2308
|2326
|2389
|2375
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|28.6
|17.3
|18.5
|15.3
|21.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6
|7.8
|8.1
|8.5
|9.5
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Zone Humide d'Ebogo'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|7
|1.3
|4.5
|1.28
|4.5
|0.78
|16.5
|0.96
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0.5
|50
|2.5
|100
|2
|100
|-
|River flood
|1
|0.35
|2
|4.69
|0.5
|2.76
|3
|0.84
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.27
|30
|0.3
|29
|0.28
|29
|0.33
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: PrecipAnomaly_Zone_Humide_d_Ebogo.png | 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Zone Humide d'Ebogo]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: TempAnomaly_Zone_Humide_d_Ebogo.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Zone Humide d'Ebogo]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://rsis.ramsar.org/fr/ris/2068 Ramsar]

= References =

<span id="R01982"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H.S., Ferreira, J., Sop, T., Carvalho, J., Mengel, M., Heinicke, S. (subm) Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R01983"></span>Liliane, M. D., Romain, N. J., Caroline, M. S. M., Abigaelle, T., & Loic, T. T. A. (2022). Quantifying Forest Loss in the Mbalmayo Forest Reserve (Center Region, Cameroon). ''Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection'', 10(09), 271-288. [https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2022.109016 doi:10.4236/gep.2022.109016]

<span id="R01984"></span>Ramsar (2012. Zone Humide d'Ebogo. Online: https://rsis.ramsar.org/fr/ris/2068 [https://web.archive.org/web/20250814013118/https://rsis.ramsar.org/fr/ris/2068 link]

<span id="R01985"></span>UNEP-WCMC (2023). Protected Area Profile for Zone Humide d'Ebogo from the World Database on Protected Areas, May 2023. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net [http://www.protectedplanet.net link]

<span id="R02348"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-05-26

ZICGC 9

2026-10-15T21:55:19Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[ZICGC 9]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/ZICGC_9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/ZICGC_9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/ZICGC_9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/ZICGC_9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/ZICGC_9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.267269, 15.280241~[[ZICGC 9]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in ZICGC 9.
* The population sizes are unknown.
* The great ape population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of approx 2,800 km².
* Key threats to great apes are not documented.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

The site is located between the Boumba River and [[Lobéké National Park]], to the west of the Moloundou Road. ZICGC stands for ''Zones d'Intéret Cynégétique à Gestion Communautaire'', areas where communities can exploit flora and fauna under community-led management plans with the oversight of governmental conservation authorities ([[#R01980|Nelson 2003]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.267269 , Lon: 15.280241
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area (Community Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Within ZICGC 9, the areas with the highest gorilla population densities have been estimated to range between 4 to 6 individuals per km ([[#R01981|Nelson & Venant 2008]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes & Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|
|
|
|
|
|ZICGC 9
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

The selection criteria required for joining the group of community delegates responsible for managing the ZICGC such as the need for French literacy, mitigates against the membership of Baka community representatives. In 2002, less than 10% of the delegates for ZICGC 9 were from the Baka majority, and they were mainly chosen by local Bantu chiefs, not by the Baka themselves ([[#R01980|Nelson 2003]]). As a result, management decisions can come into direct conflict with the livelihood strategies of the Baka. For example, the committee can allow safari companies access to primer forest hunting areas, which the Baka rely on for subsistence ([[#R01980|Nelson 2003]]).

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02347|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02347|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.6
|26
|25.9
|26.2
|27.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1305
|1327
|1352
|1378
|1357
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|25.2
|20.9
|22.6
|17.8
|21.2
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.3
|5.6
|6.3
|6.2
|7.6
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in ZICGC 9'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|7.5
|0.04
|6.5
|0.03
|8
|0.08
|19
|0.05
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|5
|50
|4
|100
|5.5
|100
|12.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0.25
|0.01
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.14
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.7
|30
|0.82
|29
|0.57
|29
|0.67
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_ZICGS09.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in ZICGC 9]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_ZICGS09.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in ZICGC 9]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01980"></span>Nelson, J. (2003). Cameroon: Baka losing out to Lobeke and Boumba National Parks. WRM bulletin, (67).Online: https://www.wrm.org.uy/bulletin-articles/cameroon-baka-losing-out-to-lobeke-and-boumba-national-parks

<span id="R01981"></span>Nelson, J., & Venant, M. (2008). Indigenous peoples’ participation in mapping of traditional forest resources for sustainable livelihoods and great ape conservation. United Nations Environment Programme/Forest Peoples Programme.

<span id="R02347"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-05-19

Ziama Biosphere Reserve

2026-10-15T21:55:18Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Republic of Guinea]] > [[Ziama Biosphere Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ziama_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ziama_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ziama_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ziama_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ziama_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.28, -9.34~[[Ziama Biosphere Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Ziama Biosphere Reserve.
* It has been estimated that less than 20 chimpanzees occur at the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is stable.
* This site has a total size of 1,162 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are hunting, agricultural activities, roads and deforestation.
* The following conservation activities are ongoing: law enforcement, bio-monitoring and reducing illegal agricultural activities.
* Ziama Biosphere Reserve has the last population of forest elephants in Guinea.

= Site characteristics =

Ziama Biosphere Reserve (also called Massif du Ziama, Ziama Classified Forest) is located in southern Guinea and is contiguous with Wonegizi Nature Reserve in Liberia ([https://www.protectedplanet.net/massif-du-ziama-classified-forest UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2018]). It is designated a Classified Forest ([[#R02144|IUCN category not reported, UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2018]]) and is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve since 1980 ([http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=GUI+02 UNESCO MAB 2007]). The forest is located in Guinée forestière, one of four Guinean natural regions, and is part of the region N'Zérékoré. Ziama massif is part of the Guinea Highlands and the altitude of the area ranges from 500 to 1,387 m ([[#R01978|UNESCO MAB 2007]]). Due to its diverse topographic features, including mountains, valleys and plateaus, Ziama forest features different habitat types: primary mountain forests, secondary mountain forests, and secondary lowland forest, swamps and savannas ([[#R01978|UNESCO MAB 2007]]). The terrain is very rugged and annual rainfall ranges from 1,700 to 2,000 mm ([http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/6375 BirdLife International 2018]).

In a conservation priority setting workshop in 2001, Ziama forest was identified as one of the most important areas for biodiversity conservation between Guinea and Togo ([[#R01970|Bakarr et al. 2001]]). One of its most notable features is that its forest elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') population is the last population in Guinea ([forestelephants.org/phase-two-ziama/ AFEF 2017]). With its 287 bird species, Ziama is also an Important Bird Area ([[#R01971|BirdLife International 2018]]). Furthermore, it harbors 31 bat species, 54 reptile species, 30 amphibian species as well as more than 1,300 plant species ([http://www.wildchimps.org WCF 2012]). Together with Diéké Classified Forest, Ziama Biosphere Reserve is one of the last remaining large forest blocks in southern Guinea.

Ziama forest has a total size of 1,161.70 km² and is divided into three management areas: a core area of 425.4 km², a buffer zone of 272.3 km², and a transition area of 463.9 km² (Brugiere & Kormos 2009). It is about 40 km from the town of Macenta ([[#R01971|BirdLife International 2018]]), and 100 km from the city of N’Zérékoré ([[#R01978|UNESCO MAB 2007]]). According to a survey from 1980, around 29,000 people live within the biosphere reserve ([[#R01978|UNESCO MAB 2007]]). There is also a forestry concession of 300 km² in the transition zone with a forestry station and chipboard production ([[#R01978|UNESCO MAB 2007]]), as well as a palm grove ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|1,162 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.28 , Lon: -9.34
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Classified Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Savanna, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Based on a nation-wide questionnaire survey, the presence of western chimpanzees was confirmed by [[#R01976|Sugiyama & Soumah (1988)]]. In a nationwide survey Rebecca Kormos identified Ziama Biosphere Reserve as the second most important priority area for western chimpanzee conservation in Guinea due to high chimpanzee densities encountered during reconnaissance surveys ([[#R01974|Ham 1998]]). However, a recent nationwide survey by the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation found very low densities of chimpanzee signs and was therefore not able to estimate total chimpanzee abundance ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). WCF concluded that less than 20 individuals remain and are restricted to high altitude areas that are unsuitable for agriculture (2012).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2016
|
|
|
|
|Ziama forest
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|FFI
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2012
|
|0.04
|
|20.0
|Ziama forest
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01979|WCF 2012]]
|Total survey effort: 157 km, encounter rate was too low to estimate total abundance, the value given is an approximation
|GIN0002, GIN0010<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+9 more" data-collapsetext="less">GIN0016, GIN0020, GIN0023, GIN0024, GIN0025, GIN0027, GIN0029, GIN0036, GIN0069</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1997
|
|
|
|
|Ziama forest
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01974|Ham 1998]]
|Reconnaissance survey
|GIN0019, GIN0021
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1988
|Present
|
|
|50.0
|Ziama forest
|Interviews
|
|[[#R01976|Sugiyama & Soumah 1988]]
|Questionnaire survey
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Ziama forest was shown to have a high prevalence of anthropogenic pressures ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). Already in the 1990s hunting was recognized as a major threat to chimpanzees ([[#R01974|Ham 1998]]) and during their recent survey of the area WCF also found a very high density of hunting signs ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). A survey by [[#R02145|FFI in 2016]] revealed that illegal agricultural activities in wetlands, i.e., bas-fonds farming, led to large-scale forest fragmentation ([https://www.fauna-flora.org/projects/supporting-effective-management-ziama-man-biosphere-reserve FFI 2018]). Threats are especially prevalent along the northern forest border where several villages and roads can be found ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). This is also where a major road connecting the urban centres of Macenta and N’Zérékoré passes through, resulting in high rates of deforestation and hunting in the two northern forest enclaves ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). The two southern forest enclaves close to the border with Liberia had been the scene of territorial conflicts during the war in Liberia, which led to the serious degradation of the forest ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Recent expansion of village settlements ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]).
|2005-Ongoing (2012)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Illegal agriculture across large areas of the forest ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]], Estela pers. comm. 2022), especially bas-fonds farming in wetlands ([[#R01973|FFI 2018]]).
|2012-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Recent extension of roads around villages in the North ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). National road crosses the PA, as well as roads that connect enclaves to the national road (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting consistently mentioned as a major threat ([[#R01974|Ham 1998]], [[#R01979|WCF 2012]], Estela pers. comm. 2022).
|1998-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|Present (unknown severity)
|Great apes injured by traps probably intended for other animals (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
|Present (unknown severity)
|Human wildlife conflict has been reported, with interactions between humans and great apes leading to various challenges, including crop raiding by great apes, people feeling unsafe around them, shared use of water sources and wild natural resources such as forest fruits, unexpected encounters on paths or trails, and, in some cases, the killing of great apes for trade or cultural reasons (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Deforestation especially prevent in the North [10], territorial conflict during the Liberian war resulted in forest degradation in the South ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|Present (unknown severity)
|A potential risk of disease transmission between humans and apes was reported (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.3 Agricultural & forestry effluents
|Present (unknown severity)
|Use of herbicides and pesticides in the wetlands under agriculture in the buffer zone (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|Ongoing (2022)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

The Centre Forestier de N'Zérékore, attached to the Ministry of the Environment and Sustainable Development, is the management authority of Ziama MAB. Partners like UNOPS and Fauna & Flora International have been supporting CFZ to develop baseline for the protected area, the management plan and the implementation of management activities since 2016 (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022). In the 1990’s the forest was divided into three land-use zones, the outer two allowing for different degrees of human activities, while the core of the forest was designated an ‘integrally protected area’ ([[#R01975|METT 2009]]). From 1994 until 2008 the work of the park authorities was financially supported by the World Bank and the KfW as part of the PROGERFOR project (METT 20019). Since 2009 Fauna & Flora International (FFI) supports the work of park authorities as part of the FFI transboundary project with Wonegizi proposed protected area in Liberia. Specifically FFI supports law enforcement and biomonitoring, and works with farmers to encourage a transition from bas-fonds agriculture in wetlands to using land close to the villages and outside of the forest. FFI also started developing a management plan ([[#R01973|FFI 2018]]). The African Forest Elephant Foundation (AFEF) is fundraising for better equipment for rangers from forest authorities that are protecting forest elephants ([[#R01969|AFEF 2017]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.4 Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|FFI works with local farmers to encourage them to use land around villages and outside of the forest for farming instead wetlands ([[#R01973|FFI 2018]])
|
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|CFZ in Ziama has a SMART database and produces monthly reports to improve the effectiveness of the law enforcement since 2019 (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|2019-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Community auxiliaries take part of the reconnaissance patrols with CFZ rangers and report back to the community about the findings (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Developing an environmental feasibility study on fish farming (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|The Centre Forestière de N’Zérékoré conducts anti-poaching patrols and is supported by FFI ([[#R01973|FFI 2018]]). Patrols and law enforcement activities were reported again in 2025 (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2018-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.6 Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
|Biomonitoring and anti-poaching patrols by rangers of the Centre Forestier de N'Zérékoré's, the management authority (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.7 Provide better equipment (e.g., guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
|AFEF is fundraising to provide rangers with boots ([[#R01969|AFEF 2017]])
|
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.8 Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
|Training on SMART, GPS use, prosecution processes, social safeguards (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Awareness-raising activities, such as teaching people about great apes, are reported (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Local communities are involved in conservation through the establishment of local governance committees in riverside villages, with participation in decision-making meetings such as CoCoSi and CCO (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.3 Install billboards to raise ape conservation awareness
|Billboards of protected species in the main villages of Ziama (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.1 Create buffer zones around protected ape habitat
|Forest was divided into three land-use zones, with the core of the forest being designated as an Integrally Protected Area ([[#R01975|METT 2009]])
|
|Unknown
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Designated as Classified Forest ([[#R01977|UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2018]])
|
|1932-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|CFZ rangers and communities are currently defining the limits of the PA, given they were not clear on the ground, and it created conflicts between rangers and people from communities (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Replanting activities by park authorities ([[#R01975|METT 2009]]). Forest rehabillitation and protection activities were also reported (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2008, 2009-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.8 Restrict number of people that are allowed access to site
|Core zones are restricted, only CFZ rangers or researchers can access. The buffer zone allows some activities that will be regulated by co-management as stated in the Management Plan (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Local people are employed in conservation projects (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Local communities are supported in developing ecotourism, creating alternative income sources such as selling local products, and managing their own forests (APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager
|About 50 CFZ rangers based in Ziama and 10 FFI staff focused on supporting the effective management of the PA (Estela, N. pers. Comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|[[#R01975|METT 2009]]
|2009-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Sufficient staff
|APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 Continuous/long-term funding
|APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|[[#R01975|METT 2009]]
|2009-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|[[#R01975|METT 2009]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|APES Atlas team pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

From 1996 to 1997 Rebecca Kormos (née Ham) did a nationwide survey on chimpanzees across Guinea ([[#R01974|Ham 1998]]), and identified Ziama Biosphere Reserve as a priority site. To inform the extension of the protected area network [[#R01972|Brugière and Kormos (2009)]] identified 16 Key Biodiversity Areas across Guinea based on the occurrence of globally threatened large and medium-sized mammals, among which Ziama Classified Forest ranked first. The Wild Chimpanzee Foundation did a nationwide inventory of chimpanzee populations in Guinea between 2009 and 2011. The WCF monitoring team covered a total of 10 sites, including Ziama Biosphere Reserve, using transect surveys ([[#R01979|WCF 2012]]). In 2016 FFI conducted a biomonitoring and threat monitoring study in Ziama ([[#R01973|FFI 2018]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02346|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02346|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.3
|25.5
|25.4
|25.5
|26.7
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2448
|2482
|2522
|2553
|2646
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|29.9
|31.2
|30.5
|32.3
|35.7
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.2
|8.6
|7.7
|8.6
|9.9
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Ziama Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5.5
|1.66
|5.5
|1.66
|4.5
|1.66
|7
|1.66
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|6
|100
|6.5
|100
|8.5
|100
|8.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.85
|1
|3.21
|1.5
|3.39
|4
|1.95
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.6
|30
|0.6
|29
|0.59
|29
|0.61
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Ziama.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Ziama Biosphere Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Ziama.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Ziama Biosphere Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01969"></span>AFEF. 2017. African Forest Elephant Foundation. Phase Two – Ziama (Guinea). Online: [forestelephants.org/phase-two-ziama/ forestelephants.org] [https://forestelephants.org/phase-two-ziama/ link]

<span id="R01970"></span>Bakarr M et al. 2001. in IUCN 2008. From forest to the sea: biodiversity connections from Guinea to Togo. Conservation priority setting workshop. Washington D.C., USA: Conservation International

<span id="R01971"></span>BirdLife International. 2018. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Massif du Ziama. Online: [http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/6375 www.birdlife.org]

<span id="R01972"></span>Brugière D, Kormos R. 2009. Review of the protected area network in Guinea, West Africa, and recommendations for new sites for biodiversity conservation, Biodiversity and Conservation, 18:847 [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-008-9508-z doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9508-z]

<span id="R01973"></span>FFI. 2018. Fauna & Flora International . Supporting effective management of Ziama Man and Biosphere Reserve. Online: [www.fauna-flora.org/projects/supporting-effective-management-ziama-man-biosphere-reserve www.fauna-flora.org]

<span id="R01974"></span>Ham R. 1998. Nationwide chimpanzee census and large mammal survey Republic of Guinea

<span id="R01975"></span>METT. 2009. Management Effectiveness Evaluations – Forêt Classée de Ziama. Online: [https://papaco.org/guinea/ papaco.org] [https://web.archive.org/web/20171210121530/http://papaco.org:80/guinea/ link]

<span id="R01976"></span>Sugiyama, Y., & Soumah, A. G. (1988). Preliminary survey of the distribution and population of chimpanzees in the Republic of Guinea. ''Primates'', 29(4), 569-574. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02381144 doi:10.1007/bf02381144]

<span id="R01977"></span>UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. 2018. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Online: [https://www.protectedplanet.net/massif-du-ziama-classified-forest www.protectedplanet.net] [https://web.archive.org/web/20200930170440/https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/GN link]

<span id="R01978"></span>UNESCO MAB. 2007. UNESCO MAB Biosphere Reserve Directory. Massif du Ziama. Online: [www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?mode=all&code=GUI+02 www.unesco.org]

<span id="R01979"></span>WCF. 2012. Etat de la faune et des menaces dans les aires protégées terrestres et principales zones de forte biodiversité de Rep. de Guinée. Report. Wild Chimpanzee Foundation, Sangaredi, Republic of Guinea. Online: [http://www.wildchimps.org www.wildchimps.org]

<span id="R02144"></span>IUCN. 2018. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at http://www. iucnredlist.org/ (accessed on 11 February 2018). [http://www.iucnredlist.org/ link]

<span id="R02145"></span>FFI. 2016. Community-based Conservation: the Wonegizi REDD+ pilot.

<span id="R02346"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Neus Estela & APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-01-23

'''Page updated by: '''APES Atlas team''' Date:''' 2025-08-15

Zemongo Faunal Reserve

2026-10-15T21:55:17Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Central African Republic]] > [[Zemongo Faunal Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zemongo_Faunal_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zemongo_Faunal_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zemongo_Faunal_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zemongo_Faunal_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zemongo_Faunal_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|6.752278, 25.207170~[[Zemongo Faunal Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Zemongo Faunal Reserve.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 10,100 km².
* Poaching is a key threat to chimpanzees and other wildlife in the reserve
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

Zemongo Faunal Reserve was established in 1925. The reserve is located in southeastern Central African Republic, bordering South Sudan to the northeast, and contiguous with Chinko Nature Reserve (Hughes & Hughes 1992). Originally the site was delineated as a 4,800 km² reserve to provide protection to the now extinct white and black rhinoceros ([[#R01967|Plumptre et al. 2010]]). The site was extended and redesignated in 1975. The reserve has expanded to include a very diverse habitat in the region, marking the transition between Congolian rainforest and Sahelian grasslands ([[#R01967|Plumptre et al. 2010]]). Zemongo comprises 10,100 sq. km, of which 1,720 sq. km consist of inundated forest. The site is situated in the Vovado river watershed (Hughes & Hughes 1992). The site is the only protected area in the region within the current known chimpanzee range ([[#R01967|Plumptre et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|10,100 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 6.752278 , Lon: 25.207170
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Faunal Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Savanna
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

The presence of chimpanzees was reported during a survey prior to 2010; two nests and a footprint were found ([[#R01967|Plumptre et al. 2010]]). There is a clear need for surveys to determine the current status of chimpanzees at the site ([[#R01967|Plumptre et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|
|
|
|
|
|Zemongo Faunal Reserve
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The human population is small along the border with Sudan, where chimpanzees inhabit forests. However, Zemongo is the only protected area in the region, and illegal poachers and armed militia coming from Sudan are increasingly common, as well as shepherds and refugees from South Sudan ([https://www.un-grasp.org/our-partners/range-states/central-african-republic/ GRASP]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Intense hunting in the buffer zone of the reserve ([[#R01968|Varty 2005]]).
|Ongoing (2005)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Despite the absence of conservation activities in the region, CAR’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan proposes rehabilitation of the reserve. This objective is reiterated in CAR’s National Operation Plan for COMIFAC ([[#R01967|Plumptre et al. 2010]]).

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02345|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02345|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.9
|26
|25.7
|26.3
|27.2
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1608
|1659
|1702
|1691
|1744
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|41.9
|53
|49.3
|51.7
|56.2
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.5
|8.9
|9.7
|9.1
|10.6
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Zemongo Faunal Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|16.5
|0.01
|8.5
|0.01
|16.5
|0
|27.5
|0.01
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|3
|35
|2
|32.14
|2
|41.67
|4
|41.67
|-
|River flood
|1.75
|0.72
|2.5
|0.53
|2
|0.71
|2.75
|0.52
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.88
|30
|0.91
|29
|0.87
|29
|0.9
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Zemongo.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Zemongo Faunal Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Zemongo.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Zemongo Faunal Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01966"></span>Hughes. R. H.. Hughes. J. S.. A directory of African wetlands. 23 April 2011. 1992. IUCN. 978-2-88032-949-5. 485.

<span id="R01967"></span>Plumptre, A.J., Rose, R., Nangendo, G., Williamson, E.A., Didier, K., Hart, J., Mulindahabi, F., Hicks, C., Griffin, B., Ogawa, H., Nixon, S., Pintea, L., Vosper, A., McClennan, M., Amsini, F., McNeilage, A., Makana, J.R., Kanamori, M., Hernandez, A., Piel, A., Stewart, F., Moore, J., Zamma, K., Nakamura, M., Kamenya, S., Idani, G., Sakamaki, T., Yoshikawa, M., Greer, D., Tranquilli, S., Beyers, R., Furuichi, T., Hashimoto, C. and Bennett, E. (2010). Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2010–2020. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland. 52pp. [http://www.primate-sg.org/PDF/ECCAP.pdf link]

<span id="R01968"></span>Varty, N. (2005). Central African Republic. World Atlas of Great Apes and Their Conservation. UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Center, 314.

<span id="R02345"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-01-15

Zanaga

2026-10-15T21:55:16Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Republic of the Congo]] > [[Zanaga]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zanaga?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zanaga?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zanaga?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zanaga?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Zanaga?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-2.468761, 13.627850~[[Zanaga]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') and western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in Zanaga.
* The population size is unknown.
* The population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 25,570 km².
* Key threats to apes are illegal logging, hunting and mining activities.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

The site is part of the Birougou-Batéké-Zanaga landscape, which has been identified as a priority landscape for western lowland gorilla and central chimpanzee conservation ([[#R01964|IUCN 2014]]). The site overlaps with one of the largest iron ore deposits in Africa, located in a strip 47 kilometres long and three kilometres wide in the Republic of the Congo, bordering Gabon. A core section of the GuineoCongolian Forest is found over this vast mineral deposit, where endangered species like western lowland gorillas, chimpanzees, and forest elephants are found. Moreover, adjacent to the deposit lies the Ogooué River, one of Africa’s largest rivers by discharge ([[#R01965|Stiles 2014]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|25,570 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -2.468761 , Lon: 13.627850
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|
|
|
|
|
|Zanaga
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|
|
|
|
|
|Zanaga
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

[https://www.zanagairon.com/about-us/ Zanaga Iron Ore Company Limited] is an iron ore exploration and development company, incorporated in the British Virgin Islands. The Company listed on AIM in November 2010 and trades under the symbol “ZIOC”. The logging companies operating in the area have already done a great deal of damage to the ecosystem diversity and composition of the forests surrounding the mine (Sitles 2014).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Presence of a large scale iron ore mine project ([[#R02015|on.com/project/ Zanaga Iron Ore Project]]) .
|Ongoing (2023)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Commercial hunting is the biggest threat to wildlife in the area ([[#R01964|IUCN 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Three Asian logging companies operating in overlapping parts of the mine concession. Loggers are principally interested in exploiting and exporting Okoumé (Aucoumea klaineana), a hardwood used for plywood ([[#R01965|Stiles 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02344|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02344|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|23.7
|24.8
|24.7
|24.9
|26
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1973
|1979
|2010
|2038
|2001
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|37.5
|28.8
|26.3
|33.9
|27.2
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.1
|9
|8.9
|8.8
|9.2
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Zanaga'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4.5
|0.01
|6.5
|0.01
|6
|0
|13
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|1
|50
|0.5
|50
|1
|50
|4
|50
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.6
|30
|0.59
|29
|0.62
|29
|0.58
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Zanaga or MPD.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Zanaga]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Zanaga or MPD.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Zanaga]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01964"></span>IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature (2014). Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Western Lowland Gorillas and Central Chimpanzees 2015–2025. International Union for Conservation of Nature. [https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2005.ssc-rap.1.en doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2005.ssc-rap.1.en]

<span id="R01965"></span>Stiles, D. (2014). The Zanaga iron ore mine – a test of best laid plans for preserving wildlife. Retrieved February 27, 2023 from Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2014/10/the-zanaga-iron-ore-mine-a-testof-best-laid-plans-for-preserving-wildlife/

<span id="R02344"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02015"></span>on.com/project/ Zanaga Iron Ore Project. https://www.zanagair

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-02-24

Wonga-Wongué

2026-10-15T21:55:15Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Gabon]] > [[Wonga-Wongué]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonga-Wongué?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonga-Wongué?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonga-Wongué?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonga-Wongué?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonga-Wongué?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-0.541739, 9.460716~[[Wonga-Wongué]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in Wonga-Wongué.
* The population sizes are unknown.
* The great ape population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 3,965.8 km².
* Key threats are not reported.
* Conservation activities are not reported.

= Site characteristics =

Wonga-Wongué is located in western Gabon, on the Atlantic coast. Habitats vary from mangrove wetlands and beaches to open grasslands and tropical forest ([[#R01951|Mills et al. 2018]]). The site comprises a wildlife reserve and two hunting concessions (Ramsar 2016). In addition to chimpanzees and gorillas, other wildlife species found at the site include elephants, buffalos, hippos, and a wide diversity of waterbirds, predominantly ''Pelecanus onocrotalus'' (Ramsar 2016). The site was designated as a Ramsar Site for its international importance as a wetland in 1986.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|3,965.816 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -0.541739 , Lon: 9.460716
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Subtropical/tropical moist lowland, Marine coastal/supratidal
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes & Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|
|
|
|
|
|Wonga-Wongué
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Utilization of the land is forbidden in the area designated as presidential reserve; in the surrounding areas logging occurs, but this does not constitute a big threat yet (Ramsar 2016). Tourism also occurs in the surroundings, with the main activities consisting of wildlife viewing and beach recreation (Ramsar 2016). Human population density is relatively low (0.2 people km-2), and 59 villages are located within 10 km of the reserve’s southwest and southeast borders ([[#R01951|Mills et al. 2018]]). The reserve seems to be well protected; e.g., no elephants were poached within the site from 2014 to 2016 ([[#R01951|Mills et al. 2018]]).

= Conservation activities =

Grassland covers 15% of the reserve ([[#R01951|Mills et al. 2018]]). The Gabon Parks Agency (ANPN) prescribed burns are conducted annually during the long-dry season to maintain the grasslands, which would otherwise be overtaken by forest encroachment ([[#R01951|Mills et al. 2018]]).

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02342|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02342|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|26.2
|27.2
|27.1
|27.4
|28.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2920
|3108
|3014
|3146
|3065
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|68.2
|39.9
|33.5
|39.2
|32.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.2
|12.3
|11.9
|10.9
|12.2
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Wonga-Wongué'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|0.07
|2.5
|0.04
|3
|0.06
|5.5
|0.08
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|15
|72.12
|14.5
|89.76
|17
|89.58
|18
|88.22
|-
|River flood
|2.25
|0.75
|4.5
|2.1
|3.75
|2.81
|7.5
|1.68
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.58
|30
|0.57
|29
|0.58
|29
|0.56
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Wongha-Wonghe.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Wonga-Wongué]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Wongha-Wonghe.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Wonga-Wongué]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/351?language=en Ramsar]

= References =

<span id="R01951"></span>Mills, E. C., Poulsen, J. R., Fay, J. M., Morkel, P., Clark, C. J., Meier, A., …, & White, L. J. T. (2018). Forest elephant movement and habitat use in a tropical forest-grassland mosaic in Gabon. ''PLOS ONE'', 13(7), e0199387. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0199387 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0199387]

<span id="R02342"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-01-10

Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area

2026-10-15T21:55:14Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Liberia]] > [[Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonegizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonegizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonegizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonegizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wonegizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.14, -9.53~[[Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 1,374 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are poaching, logging, and shifting agriculture.
* Wonegizi was selected for a REDD+ pilot project led by Flora & Fauna International.

= Site characteristics =

The [https://www.protectedplanet.net/wonegizi-nature-reserve-nature-reserve site] is located in the northwestern part of the country, bordering Guinea’s [http://panafwiki-n.eva.mpg.de/index.php/Ziama_Biosphere_Reserve Ziama Biosphere reserve]. Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area is part of the Upper Guinean forest ecosystem, which is very rich in biodiversity. In addition to the critically endangered western chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes verus''), the site contains other threatened and vulnerable species, including Jentink's duiker (''Cephalophus jentinki''), pygmy hippopotamus (''Choeropsis liberiensis''), Diana monkey (''Cercopithecus diana''), red colobus (''Piliocolobus badius''), green-tailed bristlebill (''Bleda eximius''), yellow-bearded greenbul (''Criniger olivaceus''), Nimba flycatcher (''Melaenornis annamarulae''), and the white-necked rockfowl or picathartes (''Picathartes gymnocephalus'', [https://allafrica.com/stories/201902080620.html AllAfrica 2019], [https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=3&ved=2ahUKEwiAgf-e3ZPjAhVLiqQKHaLaDS8QFjACegQIARAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fseors.unfccc.int%2Fapplications%2Fseors%2Fattachments%2Fget_attachment%3Fcode%3DZPE8DUPKTS4EQPMG9QYWMFA5CC880CTA&usg=AOvVaw1XqL9CUmu39-lMQ3yGdCSl FFI]). The site is also an Important Bird Area ([http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/wonegizi-mountains-iba-liberia IBA; BirdLife International 2019]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|1,374.27 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.14 , Lon: -9.53
|-
|Type of site
|Proposed protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

[https://www.iucn.org/content/how-single-pygmy-hippo-photo-gave-rise-wonegizi-proposed-protected-area-project Camera traps] have recorded the presence of chimpanzees at the site, but the population size remains unknown ([[#R01950|IUCN 2015]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2023
|Present
|
|
|
|Wonegizi
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|Fauna & Flora
|Community monitoring patrols suggest encounter rate of nests is stable 2021-2023.
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2020
|Present
|
|
|
|Wonegizi
|Camera trap
|
|Fauna & Flora
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2015
|Present
|
|
|
|Wonegizi
|Camera trap, Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01950|IUCN 2015]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

In addition to poaching and logging, the site is threatened by farming activities, in particular shifting cultivation ([[#R01948|FFI 2016]]). Rice is the main crop and primary driver of land conversion in the area; other crops include chilli peppers and cacao ([[#R01948|FFI 2016]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Human settlements present ([[#R01947|AllAfrica 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1.1 Shifting agriculture
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Unsustainable farming practices, primarily shifting agriculture ([[#R01948|FFI 2016]]).
|Ongoing (2016)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Bushmeat hunting and trade present in the area ([[#R01948|FFI 2016]]).
|Ongoing (2016)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Community patrol encounter rates of snares (0.12 per km), spent cartridges (0.27 per km) and hunting camps (0.005 per km) on are stable between 2021 and 2023. Chimps are not specifically targeted (Bamford pers. comm. 2024).
|2021-2023
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Extraction of timber ([[#R01948|FFI 2016]]).
|Ongoing (2016)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3.1 Subsistence logging
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|6 km2 (1.6% total area of the PPA) of forest lost between 2000-2023, most after 2013 (Bamford pers. comm. 2024).
|2000-2023
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Wonegizi is a [https://www.fauna-flora.org/projects/piloting-implementation-redd-programme-wonegizi-proposed-protected-area REDD+ pilot site]. The project follows a community-based approach, in which forest protection is rewarded under the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation mechanism (REDD+). Income from the sale of REDD+ carbon credits is used to fund activities that benefit the communities, including the provision of technical support for reducing deforestation due to agriculture whilst increasing agricultural output, establishment of tree nurseries, and salaried forest protection as an alternative income ([[#R01948|FFI 2016]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.6 Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|Fauna & Flora
|Ongoing (2024)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|[[#R01948|FFI 2016]]
|
|-
|
|Unknown
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

No information on research activities has been documented.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02341|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02341|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.6
|25.8
|25.7
|25.8
|27
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2639
|2668
|2715
|2752
|2843
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|27.6
|30.9
|30
|31.1
|35.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.4
|7.3
|7.4
|7.3
|8.5
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5.5
|0.04
|5
|0.05
|3.5
|0.04
|8.5
|0.05
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|11
|100
|6.5
|100
|11
|100
|9.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|1.5
|0.83
|1.5
|0.6
|1.5
|2.7
|4
|1.42
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.7
|30
|0.71
|29
|0.72
|29
|0.74
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Wonegizi NR.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Wonegizi NR.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01947"></span>AllAfrica. 2019. Liberia: The Potentials of Wonegizi As a Protected Area. Online: https://allafrica.com/stories/201902080620.html

<span id="R01948"></span>FFI. 2016. Community-based Conservation: the Wonegizi REDD+ pilot.

<span id="R01949"></span>BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Wonegizi mountains. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 01/07/2019.

<span id="R01950"></span>IUCN. 2015. How a single Pygmy Hippo photo gave rise to the Wonegizi Proposed Protected Area Project. Online: https://www.iucn.org/content/how-single-pygmy-hippo-photo-gave-rise-wonegizi-proposed-protected-area-project

<span id="R02341"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Andrew Bamford''' Date:''' 2024-09-05

Wologizi Proposed Protected Area

2026-10-15T21:55:13Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Liberia]] > [[Wologizi Proposed Protected Area]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wologizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wologizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wologizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wologizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Wologizi_Proposed_Protected_Area?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.06, -9.79~[[Wologizi Proposed Protected Area]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Wologizi.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 995 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are large-scale mining, commercial logging and poaching.
* The following conservation activities were conducted byby the Skills and Agriculture Development Services (SADS) in villages near Wologizi: school-based environmental education program, community radio program, newspaper publication, discussions in villages, community forestry program.
* Wologizi was removed from the list of proposed protected areas, as it appears to be important for iron ore (Johnson 2015); Wologizi is one of the ten most important conservation priority areas in terms of chimpanzee density, and large mammal and tree diversity (Junker et al. 2015).

= Site characteristics =

The main features of this area are the Wologizi Mountain Range and Wonegizi Mountains, (the Wonegizi Mountains form a transboundary conservation corridor between Liberia and the republic of Guinea and the biosphere reserve of Ziama) within two separate large blocks of largely uninhabited closed dense forest with rich biodiversity ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]]). The area includes Liberia’s highest mountain, Mount Wuteve (Wutuwi) at 1,447 m, as well as several other peaks, including Mount Balagizi (1,100 m). The mountains extend for 22 km with spurs reaching up to 5 km on either side of the ridge. Slopes on the ridge are exceedingly steep and in places form sheer cliffs up to 100 m high. With increasing altitude, tree-height decreases and the understorey becomes denser. Above 1,000 meters, areas of dense bush and grass are more common. The foothills and lower valleys are surrounded by large areas of savanna woodland ([[#R01940|BirdLife International 2019]]). The area is an Important Bird Area (IBA), and includes important portions of the upper Lofa, Lawa, and Gbaye River watersheds. It is an important site for the endangered amphibian ''Phrynobatrachus annulatus''. It is also the only known site in Liberia for the vulnerable amphibian ''Phrynobatrachus villiersii''. Additionally, it is one of two sites in Liberia that contain the vulnerable Nimba flycatcher ''Melaenornis annamarulae'' and the white-necked picathartes ''Picathartes gymnocephalus''. Also present are the zebra duiker ''Cephalophus zebra'', pygmy hippopotamus ''Hexaprotodon liberiensis'', leopard ''Panthera pardus'', forest elephant ''Loxodonta africana'' ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]]), Upper Guinea red colobus ''Piliocolobus badius'', Diana monkey ''Cercopithecus diana'' (Barrie et al. 2005), and bongo ''Tragelaphus euryceros'' (Junker unpubl. data). Wologizi is one of the ten most important conservation priority areas in terms of chimpanzee density, and large mammal and tree diversity ([[#R01943|Junker et al. 2015]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|995 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.06 , Lon: -9.79
|-
|Type of site
|Proposed protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

The Rapid Assessment Survey conducted by FFI in 2005 (Barrie et al. 2005) confirmed the presence of chimpanzees in this area. The teams of the nationwide chimpanzee and large mammal survey ([[#R01945|Tweh et al. 2014]]) also found direct (vocalization) and indirect signs of chimpanzee presence (nests, feeding sins) (Junker unpubl. data). A second Rapid Assessment Survey was conducted by FFI in collaboration with Elephant Research and Conservation (ELRECO) (Vogt pers. comm. 2019), again confirming the presence of chimpanzees in Wologizi. In addition, [[#R01942|Johnson (2015)]] mentions that surveys were conducted in this area as part of the REDD Program; however, no further information regarding these surveys could be found.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2023
|Present
|
|
|
|Wologizi
|Camera trap
|
|Fauna & Flora
|Chimps only found at higher elevations.
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2018-2019
|Present
|
|
|
|Wologizi
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|FFI Rapid Assessment Survey
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|Present
|
|
|
|Wologizi (south-western boundary)
|Line transects & recces
|
|Junker unpubl. data
|‘reconnaissance walk’, as part of the nationwide chimpanzee and large mammal survey (Tweh et al. 2014)
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2005
|Present
|
|
|
|Wologizi (North Lorma National Forest)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|FFI Rapid Assessment Survey
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

A considerable part of the proposed protected area is covered by Mineral Exploration Licenses (MEL) for gold and diamonds owned by Noya Mining Ltd. ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]]). MEL’s entail that after a proposed exploration program has been handed to the Minister of Land, Mines, and Energy, the company commences exploration ([[#R01946|Wilson et al. 2017]]). Barrie et al. (2005) mention logging and poaching as additional threats to wildlife in this area. Wologizi used to overlap with illegally issued Private-Use Permits (PUP) for commercial logging. Private Use Permits were a type of logging licence designed to allow private landowners to cut trees on their property, but which were reportedly subject to misuse by commercial logging companies. After investigations by Global Witness ([[#R01941|Global Witness 2013]]) much public outcry and extensive media coverage, PUPs have now largely been rescinded ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]]). The nationwide teams found signs of small-scale logging and poaching on recces/line transects near the north-eastern and south-western boundary of Wologizi (Junker unpubl. data). However, they also recorded taboos against the killing and/or eating of chimpanzees in villages in the same area (Junker unpubl. data).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Small-holder rice fields and other plantations observed (Junker unpubl. data).
|Ongoing (2011)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Mining for gold diamonds ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.1 Subsistence bushmeat hunting
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|No specific data from Wologizi, but a common practice across the north-west of Liberia (Bamford pers. obs. 2024).
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Evidence of logging activities (Barrie et al. 2005); area overlapped with PUPs, which have been withdrawn ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]], [[#R01943|Junker et al. 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3.1 Subsistence logging
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|91.2 km2 (5.4% of total PPA area) of forest lost between 2000 and 2023, most after 2012 (Bamford pers. obs. 2024).
|2000-2023
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

The work of the Skills and Agriculture Development Services (SADS) focuses on promoting environmental conservation, sustainable forest management and alternative livelihood provision, as means of generating incomes to support their lifestyle ([[#R01942|Johnson 2015]]). In May 2010, SADS, in collaboration with Conservation International (CI) has launched The Green Forum Program, which includes a community radio program, a newspaper publication, a school-based environmental education program, and a community forestry program.The purpose of The Green Forum is to set a stage for the exchange of ideas and information on current environmental issues of relevance in Liberia in order to raise public awareness and lay the framework for informed engagement ([[#R01944|SADS 2010]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.12 Implement community control of patrolling, banning hunting and removing snares
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.6 Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|School-based environmental education program ([[#R01944|SADS 2010]]) – not specifically targeted at chimpanzee/primate conservation
|
|2010
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.4 Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise ape conservation awareness
|Community radio program ([[#R01944|SADS 2010]]) – not specifically targeted at chimpanzee/primate conservation
|
|2010
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Newspaper publication, discussions in villages near Wologizi ([[#R01944|SADS 2010]]) – not specifically targeted at chimpanzee/primate conservation
|
|2010
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Bamford pers. comm. 2024
|
|Ongoing (2024)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

Signs of chimpanzee nut cracking observed during Rapid Assessment Survey (Barrie et al. 2005).

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Nut cracking
|
|
|
|Barrie et al. 2005
|
|
|
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02340|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02340|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.6
|25.8
|25.7
|25.8
|27
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2639
|2668
|2715
|2752
|2843
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|27.6
|30.9
|30
|31.1
|35.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.4
|7.3
|7.4
|7.3
|8.5
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Wologizi Proposed Protected Area'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5.5
|0.04
|5
|0.05
|3.5
|0.04
|8.5
|0.05
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|11
|100
|6.5
|100
|11
|100
|9.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|1.5
|0.83
|1.5
|0.6
|1.5
|2.7
|4
|1.42
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.7
|30
|0.71
|29
|0.72
|29
|0.74
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Wologizi.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Wologizi Proposed Protected Area]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Wologizi.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Wologizi Proposed Protected Area]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01940"></span>BirdLife International 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Wologizi mountains. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 04/11/2019.

<span id="R01941"></span>Global Witness. (2013). Avoiding the Riptide: Liberia must Enforce its Forest Laws to Prevent a New Wave of Illegal and Destructive Logging Contracts. Global Witness.

<span id="R01942"></span>Johnson S. 2015. Aggregated Biodiversity Offsets: A Roadmap for Liberia’s Mining Sector. Unpublished report by the World Bank Group (WBG) and Program On Forests (PROFOR).

<span id="R01943"></span>Junker, J., Boesch, C., Freeman, T., Mundry, R., Stephens, C., & Kühl, H. S. (2015). Integrating wildlife conservation with conflicting economic land-use goals in a West African biodiversity hotspot. ''Basic and Applied Ecology'', 16(8), 690-702. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2015.07.002 doi:10.1016/j.baae.2015.07.002]

<span id="R01944"></span>Skills and Agricultural Development Services (SADS) 2010. Annual Report. Unpublished report.

<span id="R01945"></span>Tweh, C. G., Lormie, M. M., Kouakou, C. Y., Hillers, A., Kühl, H. S., & Junker, J. (2015). Conservation status of chimpanzees Pan troglodytes verus and other large mammals in Liberia: a nationwide survey. ''Oryx'', 49(4), 710-718. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605313001191 doi:10.1017/s0030605313001191]

<span id="R01946"></span>Wilson, S. T. K., Wang, H., Kabenge, M., & Qi, X. (2017). The mining sector of Liberia: current practices and environmental challenges. ''Environmental Science and Pollution Research'', 24(23), 18711-18720. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9647-4 doi:10.1007/s11356-017-9647-4]

<span id="R02340"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Andrew Bamford''' Date:''' 2024-09-05

Western Area Peninsula National Park

2026-10-15T21:55:12Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Sierra Leone]] > [[Western Area Peninsula National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Western_Area_Peninsula_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Western_Area_Peninsula_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Western_Area_Peninsula_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Western_Area_Peninsula_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Western_Area_Peninsula_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.32, -13.15~[[Western Area Peninsula National Park]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Western Area Peninsula National Park.
* It has been estimated that 36 individuals occur in the site in 2019.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 183.37 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees include logging, farming, hunting, and human encroachment.
* Awareness raising, tree planting, law enforcement activities, and support for alternative livelihoods are the main conservation interventions that have been implemented at the site.

= Site characteristics =

The Western Area Peninsula National Park (WAPNP) is located in the Freetown peninsula, west of Sierra Leone ([[#R01932|BirdLife International 2019]]). The site covers a narrow chain of hills, reaching up to 900 m, and holds the western-most remnant of Upper Guinea forest ecosystem ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). With 314 bird species, including five species of global conservation concern (e.g., white-necked rockfowl ''Picathartes gymnocephalus''), WAPNP was designated as an Important Bird Area ([http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/western-area-peninsula-non-hunting-forest-reserve-iba-sierra-leone IBA]) in 2001 ([[#R01932|BirdLife International 2019]]). The site is also of high importance to the surrounding populations, as it protects the watershed of two dams, which supply water to Freetown and nearby settlements ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]; [[#R01934|EPA 2017]]). In addition to the western chimpanzee, other vulnerable species inhabiting the area include Diana monkey (''Cercopithecus diana''), Jentink’s duiker (''Cephalopus jentinki''), and the endemic frog ''Cardioglossa aureole'' ([[#R01932|BirdLife International 2019]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|183.37 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.32 , Lon: -13.15
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical dry forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Based on a line transect survey in 2010, there may be three chimpanzee communities in the area ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). The size of the population was estimated at 55 individuals, which is the most recent population estimate currently available ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2019
|
|
|
|36.0
|100 acres and buffer zone along TCS axis
|Camera trap, Reconnaissance walk
|Distance sampling
|TCS unpublished data 2019, Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|Not a systematic survey
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|1.08 (0.30-3.90)
|0.36 (0.10-1.32)
|55 (15-209)
|Western Area Peninsular Forest Reserve (158 km²)
|Line transects & recces
|
|[[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|Total survey effort: 26.97 km
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The park is highly accessible to humans through trails ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Hunting is a key threat in the area, with several hunting camps and hunting signs present at the site ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). In addition, multiple large-scale marijuana farms have been discovered in the park, as well as signs of logging and charcoal production ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Due to the urban expansion and close proximity to the capital, Freetown, WAPNP faces a lot of pressure, as the demands for fuelwood, farmland, and bushmeat continue to rise ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]], [[#R01931|BirdLife International 2017]]). In 2017, following heavy rainfall, a mudslide in the area resulted in the deaths of hundreds of people; the mudslide has been linked to extensive deforestation and erosion of the soil ([[#R01931|BirdLife International 2017]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Present (unknown severity)
|Human encroachment and housing development within the park ([[#R01931|BirdLife International 2017]]). Urban encrochment is ongoing (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|2017-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Several marijuana farms were found during a survey in 2010 ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Local communities also seek land for farming ([[#R01931|BirdLife International 2017]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2017)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Stone mining ([[#R01931|BirdLife International 2017]]).
|Ongoing (2017)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Present (unknown severity)
|The presence of trails allows for accessibility to humans ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting camps, shotgun shells, and snares were frequently encountered during a survey ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Tree cuts were frequently found within the park during a survey ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Deforestation is ongoing in 2025 (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.2 Dams & water management/use
|Present (unknown severity)
|Two dams are present in the site (Guma Valley Dam and Congo Dam) ([[#R01933|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Sierra Leone’s Forestry Division and the Conservation Society of Sierra Leone are the main organizations responsible for the management of the site and the implementation of conservation activities. The EU funded an intervention to decelerate deforestation at the site, which was implemented by Welthungerhilfe (WHH) and the Environmental Forum for Action (ENFORAC) from 2009-2014 ([[#R01934|EPA 2017]]). This intervention focused on awareness raising, especially among potential encroachers, and proving support to local people with alternative livelihood options ([[#R01935|Hempel 2013]]).

In 1995, the [https://www.tacugama.com Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary] was established. The sanctuary rescues, rehabilitates and cares for orphaned chimpanzees. Since 2011, Tacugama works with rural communities as part of its Tacugama Community Outreach Programme to promote the sustainable use of natural resources, improve agricultural practices (seed distribution), promote alternative livelihoods (e.g., fruit tree planting, livestock farms, community woodlots), improve health and hygiene in rural communities to decrease the risk of disease transmission, and environmental education activities for rural communities and children to increase awareness of the need to protect chimpanzees ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]). Tacugama also runs an eco-lodge with the proceeds going to its conservation programmes ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.4 Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|Tacugama Community Outreach Programme promotes improved agricultural practices and distributes seeds ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|2011-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Tacugama Community Outreach Programme promotes alternative livelihoods, e.g., fruit tree planting, livestock farms, community woodlots ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|2011-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.13 Implement a health programme for local communities
|Tacugama Community Outreach Programme constructs latrines in rural communities to improve hygiene and minimize bush defecation ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|2011-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Awareness raising to create an understanding of the importance of conservation, forest ecosystem and function, and chimpanzees ([[#R01935|Hempel 2013]], [[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]], Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2009-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site was designated a National Park in 2012 ([[#R01934|EPA 2017]]).
|
|2012-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Sierra Leone Launches Tree Planting Initiative in Western Area Peninsula National Park with GEF Support (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|Ministry of Environment and Climate Change
|2024
|-
|6 Species management
|6.9 Rehabilitate injured/orphaned apes
|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary takes care of and rehabilitates orphaned chimpanzees ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|1995-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Tacugama Community Outreach Programme provides infrastructure as part of its alternative livelihoods programme and supports communities in establishing sustainable sources of income ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|2011-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Small-scale community-based tourism was promoted between 2009-2014 ([[#R01935|Hempel 2013]]), Tacugama runs an eco-lodge ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|Ongoing (2009)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager
|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary has a permanent presence of staff ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).
|
|1995-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|Other
|Authorities have committed to demolishing illegal structures and prosecuting violators to protect the park's integrity (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, National Protected Area Authority
|2025
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.3 Corruption
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|2024
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|2024
|-
|
|Other (Urbanization and poor planning)
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|2024
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|2025
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|2023
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.2 Strong government support
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025
|2024
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Since 2012, Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary is conducting chimpanzee monitoring programmes across Sierra Leone. The sanctuary is also implementing annual biodiversity surveys using camera traps in the Western Area Peninsula National Park ([[#R01936|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary 2020]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02339|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02339|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.6
|26.6
|26.6
|26.7
|27.7
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|3043
|2911
|3014
|2980
|2977
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|56
|50.3
|52.8
|52.8
|53.6
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.8
|6.1
|6.4
|7.3
|6.9
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Western Area Peninsula National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|0.02
|4
|0.02
|4
|0.02
|5.5
|0.02
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|1
|100
|2
|100
|3
|100
|6
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|1
|0.42
|1.5
|0.83
|0.75
|0.62
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|1
|5.46
|0.5
|4.86
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.14
|29.5
|0.13
|29
|0.23
|29
|0.15
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Western Area Peninsula Forest.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Western Area Peninsula National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Western Area Peninsula Forest.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Western Area Peninsula National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01931"></span>BirdLife International. 2017. [https://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/did-sierra-leones-mudslide-uncover-forgotten-conservation-promise www.birdlife.org] [https://web.archive.org/web/20210927194642/https://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/did-sierra-leones-mudslide-uncover-forgotten-conservation-promise link]

<span id="R01932"></span>BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Western Area Peninsula Non-hunting Forest Reserve. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 17/09/2019.

<span id="R01933"></span>Brncic, T.M., Amarasekaran,B. & McKenna,A. (2010) Final Report of the Sierra Leone National Chimpanzee Census Project. Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160308223613/http://tacugama.com/census.html link]

<span id="R01934"></span>Environment Protection Agency (EPA). 2017. Sierra Leone’s Second National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2017-2026.

<span id="R01935"></span>Hempel, H. 2013. Final evaluation report of the Western Area Peninsula Forest Reserve protection project. Welthungerhilfe, Bonn.

<span id="R01936"></span>Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary. 2020. Online: [https://www.tacugama.com Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary]

<span id="R02339"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-09-18

'''Page updated by: '''Lahai Keifala''' Date:''' 2025-04-23

West Nimba Community Forest

2026-10-15T21:55:11Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Liberia]] > [[West Nimba Community Forest]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/West_Nimba_Community_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/West_Nimba_Community_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/West_Nimba_Community_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/West_Nimba_Community_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/West_Nimba_Community_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|7.48, -8.71~[[West Nimba Community Forest]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in West Nimba Community Forest.
* The population size is 26 individuals.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 105 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are large-scale mining and poaching.
* West Nimba has been removed from the list of proposed protected areas and become a community forest (Johnson 2015). At least one of three chimpanzee communities in West Nimba Community Forest lives directly west of one of the mining sites. The Nimba Mountains are an Alliance Zero Extinction (AZE) site.

= Site characteristics =

Nimba County is located in the western part of the Upper Guinea Ecoregion, which extends from Sierra Leone to the Sassandra River in Côte d’Ivoire. The West Upper Guinea forest ecosystem is characterized by exceptional biological richness and the endemism of its flora and fauna ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). West Nimba Community Forest is part of the Northern Nimba Conservation Area (NNCA), which is located in northeastern Liberia. The latter forms an integral part of the northeastern forest block of the country. The NNCA is comprised of the East Nimba Nature Reserve (ENNR), West Nimba Community Forest, ArcelorMittal Liberia (AML) concessions, and several towns. The area spans two districts of Nimba County: Yarmein and Gbelegay ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). Mount Nimba, which spans three countries, is one of the most famous sites for biodiversity conservation in West Africa and has been identified as a priority biodiversity hotspot for conservation ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). West Nimba was once designated a proposed protected area ([[#R01929|Junker et al. 2015]]), but its protected status was modified later on ([[#R01928|Johnson 2015]]). The following species were recorded in West Nimba Community Forest: western lesser spot-nosed monkey ''Cercopithecus petaurista buettikoferi'', Campbell’s monkey ''Cercopithecus campbelli'', sooty mangabey ''Cercocebus atys'' and the vulnerable king colobus ''Colobus polykomos'', the near threatened bay duiker ''Cephalophus dorsalis'' and African buffalo ''Syncerus caffer'', bush buck ''Tragelaphus scriptus'', leopard ''Panthera pardus'' and African civet ''Civettictis civetta'' ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|105 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 7.48 , Lon: -8.71
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area (Community Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest, Urban areas
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

According to the literature, the area was first surveyed in 2005 by Fauna & Flora International (FFI), in collaboration with the Forestry Development Authority (FDA), the Environmental Protection Agency of Liberia (EPA), and the Ministry of Planning and Economic Affairs (MPEA). While chimpanzees were apparently recorded during this survey ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]), no further details on the survey results could be found. During another survey conducted by Conservation International (CI), in collaboration with the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF), Actions pour la Conservation de la Biodiversité (ACB-CI), and AML

from 2010-2011, the study area was divided into three different sites: the Gangra-Yuelliton site (21.26 km²) where mining will be carried out, the Tokadeh site (19.88 km², under exploitation since May 2011) and the West Nimba site (79.97 km², the remaining West Nimba forest). The chimpanzee population was estimated at 26 individuals with a density of 0.21 chimpanzees/ km².

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010-2011
|
|
|0.21 (0.05-0.55)
|26 (10-67)
|West Nimba Community Forest (121 km²)
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01927|CI 2012]] (in collaboration with the WCF, ACB-CI, AML)
|Survey effort: 122 km. Encounter rates: Gangra-Yuelliton:1.97; Tokadeh 0.4; West Nimba 0.74
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2005
|Present
|
|
|
|West Nimba Community Forest
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|FFI 2005 in [[#R01928|Johnson 2015]]
|‘BIOPA’ in CI 2012, Johnson 2015; ‘reconnaissance walk’; collaborative effort of FFI, FDA, EPA, MPEA (Johnson 2015)
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Mount Nimba was exploited for iron ore by LAMCO from the 1960s until the early 1990s. A large part of West Nimba’s forest comprising the Gangra Mountain, the Yuelliton Mountain and the Tokadeh Mountain has been granted for iron ore mining to AML ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). AML holds a Class A mining licence, which entails that mining is permitted in the proposed production area (no size limit) for at least 25 years ([[#R01930|Wilson et al. 2017]]). The 2010-2011 survey results showed that the chimpanzee distribution range overlaps largely with the mining sites ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). The bushmeat study that was conducted by [[#R01927|CI (2012)]] in West Nimba Community Forest showed that hunting had a huge impact on wildlife in the area ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). Ancestral hunting methods had all but disappeared and been replaced by cable snares and shotguns year-round without regard for legislation. Traps accounted for 41% of the off-takes and caught both small and big game; guns, most of which were locally built, accounted for 58% of the off-takes and were used both day and night ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]). The sources of water pollution are erosion at the mine site, waste dumps and stockpiles, oil and grease, discharge from settlement and attenuation ponds, and ore handling and loading. However, ore will not be processed for DSO Phase 1, which will eliminate some potential sources of pollution, but investigations revealed that the head of streams and downstream larger rivers would be affected ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Cassava farms, cocoa farms, coffee farms, plantain farms, rice farms, new forest cutting and old farms ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Open-pit mining for iron ore ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting signs recorded during line transect survey ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Logging signs recorded during line transect survey ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.2 Industrial & military effluents
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Water-, and air pollution caused by open-pit mining operations at this site ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.6 Energy emissions
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Noise from mining activities ([[#R01927|CI 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02338|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02338|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25
|26.1
|26.1
|26.2
|27.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1930
|1955
|1991
|1998
|2070
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|33.9
|31.6
|30.4
|33
|33.8
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6
|8
|7.3
|8.2
|9.7
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in West Nimba Community Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|7.5
|5.96
|6.5
|5.96
|7.5
|5.96
|17.5
|5.96
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|7.5
|100
|5.5
|100
|6.5
|100
|6
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.08
|1.75
|0.88
|2
|1.46
|4.5
|1.39
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.42
|30
|0.43
|29
|0.42
|29
|0.43
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_West Nimba.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in West Nimba Community Forest]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_West Nimba.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in West Nimba Community Forest]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01927"></span>Conservation International (CI) 2012. Further Ecological Studies as Part of the Environmental and Social Impact Assessment for Arcelormittal Liberia: Bushmeat and Biomonitoring Studies in the Northern Nimba Conservation Area. Unpublished report. Conservation International and ArcelorMittal, Liberia.

<span id="R01928"></span>Johnson S. 2015. Aggregated Biodiversity Offsets: A Roadmap for Liberia’s Mining Sector. Unpublished report by the World Bank Group (WBG) and Program On Forests (PROFOR).

<span id="R01929"></span>Junker, J., Boesch, C., Freeman, T., Mundry, R., Stephens, C., & Kühl, H. S. (2015). Integrating wildlife conservation with conflicting economic land-use goals in a West African biodiversity hotspot. ''Basic and Applied Ecology'', 16(8), 690-702. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.baae.2015.07.002 doi:10.1016/j.baae.2015.07.002]

<span id="R01930"></span>Wilson, S. T. K., Wang, H., Kabenge, M., & Qi, X. (2017). The mining sector of Liberia: current practices and environmental challenges. ''Environmental Science and Pollution Research'', 24(23), 18711-18720. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9647-4 doi:10.1007/s11356-017-9647-4]

<span id="R02338"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-11-11

Volcanoes National Park

2026-10-15T21:55:10Z

WikiEdit:

[[East Africa]] > [[Rwanda]] > [[Volcanoes National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Volcanoes_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Volcanoes_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Volcanoes_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Volcanoes_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Volcanoes_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-1.399010, 29.588259~[[Volcanoes National Park]]~''Gorilla beringei beringei''}}</div>
* Mountain Gorillas (''Gorilla beringei beringei'') are present in Volcanoes National Park.
* The gorilla population in the Virunga Massif, which includes Volcanoes National Park, has been estimated at 669 (CI: 623–759).
* The gorilla population trend is increasing.
* The site has a total size of 160 km².
* Key threats to gorillas are habitat encroachment, illegal hunting and logging.
* Conservation activities have focused on ecotourism and research activities.
* The Karisoke Research Center was established in the park by American primatologist Dian Fossey.
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Buffalos_at_the_base_of_Karisimbi_31-MAY-2021_JAMES_(1).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Silberback_Gicurasi.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | Silverback Gicurasi © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: KARISIMBI_the_highest_of_the_Virungas_1_JUN_20_KRC_SAMEDI_(4).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund.]] </li></ul></div>
= Site characteristics =

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|-
|Area
|160 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -1.399010 , Lon: 29.588259
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Rocky areas (inland cliffs, mountain peaks)
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: 18_copy.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Gorilla_with_Volcanoes_in_the_background_29-Sept-2021_KRC_Cedric_(1).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;">[[File: NZE_&_NZEINF_&_AKA_&_AME_24-AUG-2021_KRC_Jean_de_Dieu_Tuyizere_(3)contrast.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Silverback_on_BISOKE_TOP_26-MAR-07_KRC_VECELLIO_(24).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | Silverback on Bisoke Top © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li></ul></div>
= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2015-2016
|
|
|
|669 (623-759)
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Spatially explicit capture-recapture, Reconnaissance walk
|[[#R01885|Granjon et al. 2020]]
|Combination of recces and mark-recapture; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2010
|
|
|
|480
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Count method
|[[#R01887|Gray et al. 2013]]
|Recces; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2003
|
|
|
|380
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Count method
|Gray et al. 2003
|Recces; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2000
|
|
|
|359-395
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Other (type here)
|Count method
|[[#R01892|Kalpers et al. 2003]]
|Used regular ranger patrols to count nests of unhabituated groups and known number of gorillas from habituated groups; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1989
|
|
|
|324
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Count method
|Sholley 1991
|Counted night nests; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1986
|
|
|
|293
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Count method
|Vedder and Aveling 1986
|Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1981
|
|
|
|254
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Line transects
|Count method
|[[#R01877|Aveling and Harcourt 1984]]
|Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1976-1978
|
|
|
|268
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Other (type here)
|Count method
|[[#R01917|Weber and Vedder 1983]]
|Used recces to count direct sightings, count nests and used demographic information from monitored groups; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1971-1973
|
|
|
|274
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Count method
|[[#R01889|Harcourt and Groom 1972]], [[#R01888|Groom 1973]]
|Used recces and nest counts; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1959-1960
|
|
|
|400-500
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01909|Schaller 1963]]
|Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Two_groups_interacting_26_Jun_2022_Dian_Fossey_Gorilla_Fundt_(1)_(1)_(2).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: 20170504GIR_DSC_5759_PAS_ASH_JGalbany_copy.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;">[[File: 3_copy.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: TGO_MAF_30_JUL_21_KRC_SAMEDI_(29)_(1).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li></ul></div>
= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Since the early 1990s, the human population has steadily and steeply increased around the Virunga volcanoes (Plumptre & Williamson, 2001) reaching >1000 people / sqkm in 2010 with a large proportion being poor and depending on forest resources ([[#R01878|Bush, 2010]])
|1900-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.2 Commercial & industrial areas
|Present (unknown severity)
|Military bases near and inside the park for security reasons ([[#R01892|Kalpers et al., 2003]]; [[#R01895|Maekawa et al., 2013]]) starting from 1990s. In addition, telecommunication infrastructure was built on the top of Karisimbi in 1985 (https://allafrica.com/stories/200509300210.html).
|1985-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.3 Tourism & recreation areas
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Ecotourism was implemented in the 1980s ([[#R01915|Vedder, 1989]]) and has since been growing but it ceased temporarily in 1990s during insecurity in the region and in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic. Today, there are frequent tourist activities in most forest areas.
|1980-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|10 Geological events
|10.3 Avalanches/landslides
|Present (unknown severity)
|Landslides occur inside the park during heavy rainy periods and can destroy small forest patches (personal observations).
|1960-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|Present (unknown severity)
|One of the gorillas key habitats, the bamboo forest, is disappearing inside the VNP and regeneration through shoots is declining (van der Hoek et al., 2020).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|11.3 Temperature extremes
|Present (unknown severity)
|Anecdotes of gorillas dying from hypothermia during cold/rainy days ([[#R01881|Eckardt et al., 2019]])
|2011-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1.1 Shifting agriculture
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|In the 1950s and 1960s, ~50% of the park was destroyed for agricultural fields/farming (e.g. pyrethrum, potatoes) ([[#R01918|Weber, 1987]], 1989). On a smaller scale, forest was cut for agriculture until 1981 ([[#R01895|Maekawa et al., 2013]]).
|1950-1969
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
|Present (unknown severity)
|The lack of land available for small-holder farming around the park poses increasing pressure on forest resources (Musahara and Huggins, 2004; https://www.volcanoesnationalpark.org/news/assessing-impacts-from-community-conservation-interventions/).
|1960-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.2 Wood & pulp plantations
|Present (unknown severity)
|Various non-native tree species are cultivated by small-holders adjacent to the park (e.g. Eucalyptus, Acacia, Cyprus, non-native bamboo species) (e.g. [[#R01897|McGuinness, 2014]]).
|1980-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|From the 1950s until the mid-1970s, herds of hundreds of cattle grazed inside the park ([[#R02100|Harcourt, 1986]]; [[#R01909|Schaller, 1963]]).
|1950-1975
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.1 Subsistence bushmeat hunting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Gorillas were intentionally hunted for trophy trade (e.g. heads, skulls), and mainly sold to foreigners ([[#R02100|Harcourt, 1986]]; [[#R01912|Steward et al., 2001]])
|1970-1980
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.2 Unintentional effects
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Unintentional effect on gorillas as snares are set targeting other animals in the forest (with forest sectors being affected differently) (unpublished Ranger-Based Monitoring data; [[#R01907|Robbins et al., 2011]])
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|In the past, gorillas were captured for live animal trade (Plumptre & Williamson, 2001; [[#R01912|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001]]; [[#R01907|Robbins et al., 2011]])
|1960-1969
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Gorillas occasionally range outside the park in adjacent agricultural fields and feed on trees (e.g. Eucalyptus, Acacia), herbs, and bamboo stands; however, research indicates that local communities rate the level of conflict low because a compensation system is in place ([[#R01897|McGuinnes, 2014]]).
|2001-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|People enter the park to collect medicinal plants and cut bamboo for construction ([[#R01878|Bush, 2010]]).
|1960-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|In the 1950s and 1960s, ~50% of the park was destroyed for agricultural fields/farming ([[#R01918|Weber, 1987]]).
|1950-1973
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3.1 Subsistence logging
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Today, people still enter the park to cut bamboo stems or trees but on a small scale for construction or firewood ([[#R01878|Bush, 2010]]).
|1980-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Armed groups were present inside the park ([[#R01892|Kalpers et al., 2003]]).
|1990-2003
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|In 1990 and early 2000s, intermitted disruptions in daily protection of the forest due to war in the region and the presence of armed groups and refugees in the forest ([[#R01912|Stewart et al., 2001]]). However, pre-/post-surveys indicated that the gorilla population did not reduce but further increased (Vedder and Aveling 1986; [[#R01892|Kalpers et al. 2003]]).
|1994-2003
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.3 Other human disturbances
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Other illegal activities have been observed inside the park, e.g. water collection and beekeeping (unpublished Ranger-Based Monitoring data; [[#R01878|Bush, 2010]]; https://www.volcanoesnationalpark.org/news/assessing-impacts-from-community-conservation-interventions/).
|1960-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|In 1989 and 2009, fire broke out along the slope of Mount Muhabura twice caused by human activities and burned a large area from low to high elevation ([[#R02101|Hoek et al., 2023]]; [[#R01898|McNeilage, 1995]])
|1989-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species
|Present (unknown severity)
|Invasive and exotic plant and animal species (e.g. tree tomatoes, feral dogs) have been recorded inside VNP (unpublished Ranger-Based Monitoring data; [[#R01891|Irakoze, 2024]]; [[#R01913|Uzabaho et al., 2023]]).
|1960-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Reports of respiratory viruses, gastrointestinal parasites, herpes viruses, and measles inside the VNP and rabies, Ebola, and Marburg virus outbreaks in close proximity to the park (e.g. [[#R01896|Mazet et al., 2020]]; [[#R01890|Hassell et al., 2017]]; Smiley Evans et al., 2017; [[#R02102|Spelman et al., 2013]]; [[#R01903|Petrzlkova et al., 2021]], 2022)
|1988-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.3 Agricultural & forestry effluents
|Present (unknown severity)
|Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used in agricultural fields where gorillas range nearby the park boundaries when exiting the park (Kwizera et al., 2024).
|1990-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.4 Garbage & solid waste
|Present (unknown severity)
|Waste inside the Volcanoes National Park is a growing problem (e.g. plastic bottles are left inside the park) (https://www.awf.org/blog/cleaning-volcanoes-national-park-removing-remnants-past).
|1990-Ongoing (2024)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.5 Air-borne pollutants
|Present (unknown severity)
|Danger from ambient air pollution is increasing across Africa ([[#R01879|DeWitt et al., 2019]]; [[#R01883|Fisher et al., 2021]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Threats]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Visoke_9-Jul-14_Vecellio2.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: VISOKE_AND_PARK_BORDER_20-FEB-07_KRC_VECELLIO_(13).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li></ul></div>
= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.11 Avoid building roads in key habitat or migration routes
|Personal communication: In the beginning of the 2000s, there was a proposal to build a road through the forest to connect DRC and Rwanda. But conservationists such as International Gorilla Conservation Programme stopped planning.
|International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|2000-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.3 Prohibit (livestock) farmers from entering protected areas
|Until mid-1970s, cattle herds were illegally grazing inside the Volcanoes National Park. Conservation actions (deployment of anti-poaching teams) have nearly ceased this activity after many years of conflict with the farmers ([[#R02100|Harcourt, 1986]]).
|Karisoke Research Center, Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux)
|1975
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.5 Install mechanical barriers or use natural hedges to deter apes
|The construction of a stone wall and trenches (https://igcp.org/updates/human-wildlife-conflict-measures-restore-hope-for-better-harvest-for-park-edge-communities-in-rwanda-and-drc/) along the park boundaries started in 2003 (finalized in 2015) to avoid wildlife exiting the park (https://www.newtimes.co.rw/article/8224/news/tourism/buffalo-wall-in-virunga-mountains-reduces-human-wildlife-conflict). However, this action has not proven to be effective in preventing apes from exiting the park
|Rwanda Development Board, International Gorilla Conservation Programme, Great Virunga Transboundary Collaboration
|2003-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|In the past, anti-poaching patrols and gorilla monitoring teams filled out daily monitoring sheets with pencil and paper. In 1999, GPS devices were introduced to monitor spatial patterns of wildlife in the park. MIST software was implemented in early 2000. In 2015, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund implemented CyberTracker for daily protection and monitoring a gorilla subpopulation in the park. Since 2023, SMART was introduced as a new ranger-based monitoring tool and is now used by all gorilla ranger teams (see: https://igcp.org/updates/volcanoes-national-park-consolidates-smart/).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1999-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Various organizations and stakeholders have supported local communities around the Volcanoes National Park with livelihoods, such as the tourism sector (employment as guide, porter), through cooperatives (e.g. beekeeping, handcrafts, mushroom farms), distribution of domestic animals (e.g. goats, sheep, cows) (e.g. https://rdb.rw/rdb-hands-over-729-cows-to-vulnerable-families-living-around-volcanoes-national-park/; https://gorillafund.org/helping-communities/new-community-program-helps-villages-and-protects-forests/; https://earthjournalism.net/stories/from-poachers-to-conservationists-how-a-cultural-village-saved-volcano-national-park-in; https://www.forgorillas.org/what-we-do).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, International Gorilla Conservation Programme, Sacola, Hospitality-based businesses (e.g. Eco-Lodges), Conservation Heritage-Turambe
|1960-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.14 Employ hunters in the conservation sector to reduce their impact
|There are reports that former hunters were employed in conservation efforts (e.g. https://earthjournalism.net/stories/from-poachers-to-conservationists-how-a-cultural-village-saved-volcano-national-park-in; [[#R01884|Fossey, 1983]]).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund,
|1967-2000
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Regular patrols were initiated with funds received by the Digit Fund at the end of 1970s ([[#R02100|Harcourt, 1986]]; [[#R01912|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001]]). Today, regular anti-poaching patrols are conducted across forest sectors and in areas where snares were sighted by other field teams.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|1975-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.6 Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
|Anti-poaching patrols and other field teams (e.g. gorilla or golden monkey protection and monitoring teams that daily work inside the VNP) destroy snare when encountered ([[#R02100|Harcourt, 1986]]; [[#R01912|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001]]).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.7 Provide better equipment (e.g., guns) to anti-poaching ranger patrols
|Anti-poaching patrol teams include at least one armed guard. Since 2015, teams started to be equipped with CyberTracker (later SMART) software installed on Android devices for recording data.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1980-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.8 Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
|Anti-poaching teams regularly participate in training programs (e.g. methods/tools for environmental/biodiversity monitoring, paramilitary training) (e.g. http://igcp.org/updates/volcanoes-national-park-consolidates-smart/)
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1978-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|Wearing a facial mask is mandatory during gorilla visits. This rule was implemented when COVID-19 pandemic broke out and has been maintained (Gilardi et al., 2021).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|2020-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.10 Treat sick/injured apes
|Pre-1985, the health of habituated gorillas was monitored by field teams and sick/injured apes were treated (no permanent vet on site) (https://www.gorilladoctors.org/about-us/history-past-gorilla-doctors/).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1967-1984
|-
|3 Species health
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site
|Field teams daily monitor the health of habituated gorillas (e.g. see: https://www.gorilladoctors.org/saving-lives/gorilla-health-monitoring-and-interventions/; [[#R01900|Morrison et al., 2021]])
.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|1985-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.12 Detect & report dead apes and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
|Field teams report encounters of dead gorillas. If possible, dead gorillas are removed from the forest for necropsy by Gorilla Doctors to determine the cause of death and for sample collection (e.g. see: https://www.gorilladoctors.org/tag/necropsy/)
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.13 Implement a health programme for local communities
|Since early 2000s, various WASH, deworming initiatives, and a park staff (and their families) health monitoring program have been implemented in local communities around the Volcanoes National Park (e.g. https://www.mdf.nl/assignments/water-for-virunga-w4v-rwanda; https://www.go2africa.com/positive-impact/dian-fossey-gorilla-fund). Some of these initiatives have been temporary. Gorilla Doctors started treating/monitoring staff and their families in 2004 (https://www.gorilladoctors.org/saving-lives/one-health-medicine/employee-health-program/).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|2000-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.14 Reduce garbage/human food waste to avoid ape injuries and disease transmission
|Rwanda Development Board in collaboration with partners regularly conducts patrols aiming to remove trash inside the park (e.g. https://www.awf.org/blog/cleaning-volcanoes-national-park-removing-remnants-past).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1999-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|Rules and regulations for gorilla visits exist, such as keeping a distance to gorillas of at least 7m (see: https://www.gorilladoctors.org/it-takes-a-village-to-keep-gorillas-healthy/). This distance was temporarily increased to 10m during the COVID-19 pandemic (March 2020 to 2022).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1990-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.3 Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated apes
|Since 1990s strict regulation for gorilla visits exists and include a limit of a 1-hour stay for tourists (see: https://visitrwandabookings.rdb.rw/rdbportal/mountain-gorilla-tracking) and a 4-hour visit for trackers/researchers. During the COVID-19 pandemic, trackers/researchers only conducted a group check (presence/absence of gorillas, births/deaths, health) and remained at a distance of 100-200m from the group.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|1990-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.4 Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site
|Park staff cannot visit gorillas after international flights for 2 weeks (e.g. see: https://www.gorilladoctors.org/week-one/) and after within-Africa flights for 1 week. This quarantine rule does not apply to tourists.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.6 Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
|Monitoring of vaccination history and vaccinating researchers and other park staff only occurs sporadically when disease outbreaks occur. For example, park staff got vaccinated during the Ebola outbreak in DRC in 2019 and the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020. A vaccination rule does exist for tourists.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|2019-2020
|-
|3 Species health
|3.8 Wear gloves when handling primate food, tool items, etc.
|When collecting biological samples from wildlife, gloves have to be worn since the 2000s (personal observation).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration, International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|2000-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.9 Preventative vaccination of habituated or wild apes
|During a measle outbreak 1988, 65 habituated gorillas were vaccinated ([[#R02102|Spelman et al., 2013]]).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors
|1988
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Education programs promoting biodiversity and gorilla conservation targeting local communities including school children around the park have been implemented by multiple stakeholders (e.g.: https://gorillafund.org/category/education-programs/; https://www.forgorillas.org/; .https://igcp.org/about-us/).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Conservation Heritage-Turambe, International Gorilla Conservation Programme, Muhisimbi Voice of Youth in Conservation, Children in the Wilderness, Gorilla Organization, and many others
|1980-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Since early 2000s local communities represented by local governments (also called local/village leaders) and cooperatives are regularly consulted to address conservation challenges (e.g. wildlife conflicts and illegal use of forest resources, usages of revenue-sharing benefits) (e.g. [[#R01893|Kalulu et al., 2016]]; https://gorillafund.org/helping-communities/new-community-program-helps-villages-and-protects-forests/).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), International Gorilla Conservation Programme
|2000-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.3 Install billboards to raise ape conservation awareness
|Many conservation partners have installed billboards to raise ape conservation awareness (personal observations)
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Conservation Heritage-Turambe, International Gorilla Conservation Programme, Gorilla Doctors, Gorilla Organization, and many others
|1970-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Various initiatives were implemented around the Volcanoes National Park, such as conservation movies (https://gorillafund.org/uncategorized/community-conservation-through-movies/), conservation plays, and radio programs. Since 2005, the gorilla-naming party "Kwita Izina" has taken place annually and has grown into the largest multimedia campaign focusing on gorilla conservation with international reach (e.g. https://visitrwanda.com/kwita-izina/). Another annual event includes the conservation debate contest in secondary schools (https://gorillafund.org/conservation/conservation-debate-2023/).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Conservation Heritage-Turambe, Gorilla Doctors, and many others
|2005-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The Albertine National Park which included today's Volcanoes National Park was founded in April 1925 ([[#R01892|Kalpers et al. 2003]]).
|European Conservation Movement
|1925-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|A stone-wall using volcanic stones has been built along the border of the Volcanoes National Park and later enforced by a trench to mitigate human-wildlife conflict.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux)
|2003-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|The Rwanda government started planning and piloting the restoration of formerly destroyed park areas in the 1950s-60s (see: https://www.environment.gov.rw/1-1/muvumba-multipurpose-water-resources-development)
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), African Wildlife Fund
|2019-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.8 Restrict number of people that are allowed access to site
|All activities inside the Volcanoes National Park are linked to restricted numbers of people including tourists per day and group (see [[#R01897|McGuinness, 2014]]).
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux)
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.2 Guard habituated ape groups to ensure their safety/well-being
|All habituated groups are monitored and protected daily by teams of rangers who spend at least 4 hours (depending on group location and other factors) with the group 365 days a year (https://gorillafund.org/what-we-do/daily-protection/; https://visitrwanda.com/interests/gorilla-tracking/). There have been only a few gaps when protection and monitoring ceased due to insecurity in the 1990s.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.9 Rehabilitate injured/orphaned apes
|In a few cases in the past, orphaned gorillas were retrieved from their natal groups/forest with the attempt to rehabilitate and reintroduce them - without success so far (see Coco and Pucker in [[#R01884|Fossey, 1983]]). Confiscated mountain gorillas from DRC were brought to facilities (interim facility in Rwanda/Kinigi, DRC/Senkwekwe) for rehabilitation.
|Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature, Rwanda Development Board, Gorilla Doctors, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund
|1978-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.1 Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund has conducted research in the gorilla population on the Rwandan side of the Virunga massif since 1967 and is today's longest-running gorilla research station with a permanent presence (www.gorillafund.org). These are collaborative efforts with national, regional, and international partners. Over the years, other organizations have implemented research in the park (e.g. https://www.gorilladoctors.org/).
|Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Gorilla Doctors, International Gorilla Conservation Programmme
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Regular gorilla tourism was implemented in Rwanda in 1970s ([[#R01912|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001]];https://visitrwanda.com/destinations/volcanoes-national-park/). All habituated groups are monitored and protected daily by teams of rangers.
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Rwandan Office for Tourism and National Parks - ORTPN)
|1970-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager
|There has been an increasing permanent presence of field staff, managers, veterinarians, and researchers on-site starting in 1967 (www.gorillafund.org; https://visitrwanda.com/interests/gorilla-tracking/; https://www.gorilladoctors.org/)
|Rwanda Development Board (former: Office Rwandais du Tourisme et des Parcs Nationaux), Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, Gorilla Doctors
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: NTA_trackers_team_on_the_way_to_the_forest_9-Nov-2021_KRC_Cedric_(3)_(1).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Conservation_courses_delivery_at_Muhingo_school_9-May-2023_KRC_Vanson_Cyuzuzo_(318).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | Conservation Courses Delivery © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;">[[File: Avocado_trees_distribution_on_Earth_Day_at_Butaka_School_24-April-2023_KRC_Elias_(1).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Community_Engagement_Program_Distributing_Alnus_tree_seedlings_at_Nyabirehe_School_13-Oct-2022_KRC_Cedric_(3).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | Community Engagement Program © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li></ul></div>
= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.2 Need for improved coordination
|After insecurity in the 1990s, a lack of coordination existed temporarily.
|1990-2000
|-
|1 Site management
|1.4 Conflict on land tenure
|Despite the national park status, between 1950s and early 1970s (1958-1973), >50% of the Volcanoes National Park was destroyed for the cultivation of cash crops (e.g. pyrethrum) and human settlement ([[#R01918|Weber, 1987]], 1989).
|1950s-1970s
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|Local capacity building initiatives have been growing over the past 20 years (e.g. https://gorillafund.org/what-we-do/training-conservationists/) but there is a continuing need across all fields in conservation especially those involving advanced technologies.
|Pre-2004-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|Conservation initiatives can be delayed, reduced, or are not conducted due the lack of funding (e.g. [[#R01905|Refisch and Jenson, 2016]]).
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|Even if supply of equipment and the provision of transportation has been improving over the years, it remains a challenge due to increasing needs (personal observation)..
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.7 Lack of infrastructure
|The increased conservation activities require constantly growing infrastructure (e.g. staff quarters, offices) (personal observation)
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.5 Anticipated disadvantages/costs created by conservation activities (e.g., restricted access/resource use)
|The national park status has forced local people to rely on other resources, such as firewood, water, meat) (e.g. [[#R01878|Bush et al., 2010]])
|1925-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.1 Political/economic instability
|Since 2011, regional political conflicts have been affecting collaborative conservation actions, such as the feasibility of conducting a Virunga-wide gorilla census.
|2011-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Insecurity
|Between 1990-2003; caused most conservation activities to temporarily cease (see [[#R01912|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001]])
|1990-2003
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Between 1990-2003; caused most conservation activities to temporarily cease (see [[#R01912|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001]])
|1990-2003
|-
|
|Other (specify)
|COVID-19 pandemic brought multiple challenges (lack of income from tourism, unemployment, increased poverty around the park, research ceased, etc.) (see: Gilardi et al. 2021)
|2020-2022
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.1 Effective leadership
|Rwandan government leadership strongly supports and promotes conservation (e.g. see https://rdb.rw/five-ways-rwanda-is-investing-in-ecotourism-and-conservation/; https://www.rema.gov.rw/our-work/biodiversity-conservation).
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.2 Effective coordination
|Rwanda Development Board effectively coordinates conservation activities with key conservation partners to achieve conservation management plans.
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.3 Adaptive management practices
|e.g., anti-poaching patrols target areas with snare encounters ([[#R01907|Robbins et al., 2011]])
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 Continuous/long-term funding
|[[#R01907|Robbins et al., 2011]]
|1980s-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Adequate data to inform and evaluate conservation actions
|Long-term monitoring and research on the gorilla population since 1967 and on the wider biodiversity since 2003 (e.g. www.gorillafund.org)
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|Strong expertise on ground combined with a wide and diverse network of partners (personal observation)
|Early 2000s-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|Key conservation partners have strong networks with national, regional, and international partners with a wide range of expertise (personal observation).
|Early 2000-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 Strong local environmental knowledge
|Local environmental knowledge on gorilla population and their habitat has been built since 1960s due to permanent presence of research in the park (e.g. see www.gorillafund.org).
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.4 Anticipated advantages/benefits of conservation activities
|Tourism revenue-sharing in place: since 2005, 5% of income from tourist tickets has been returned to local communities for development. In May 2017, the revenue sharing increased to 10%. In addition, multiple community conservation programs have been implemented that positively affect the livelihood and education of local communities around the park. Also, several avenues exist for local people to gain employment through conservation initiatives. (see: [[#R01893|Kalulu et al., 2016]]; [[#R01911|Snyman et al., 2023]]).
|1967-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.5 Positive past experience/associations with conservation (e.g. positive image of conservation)
|Tourism revenue-sharing in place: since 2005, 5% of income from tourist tickets has been returned to local communities for development (e.g. infrastructure, cooperatives). This showed local communities the benefits of protecting the gorillas and their habitat ([[#R01911|Snyman et al., 2023]]). Various community engagement programs helped to raise conservation awareness around the park, including the provision of access to the forest and visits to wildlife (e.g. https://gorillafund.org/uncategorized/understanding-community-engagement-key-conservation/).
|Early 2000s-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|Employment of local people as rangers, guides, porters, etc. Cooperatives maintain the stone wall around the park to protect local people from wildlife exiting the park. Tourism revenue-sharing in place: since 2005, 5% of income from tourist tickets has been returned to local communities for development. In May 2017, the revenue sharing increased to 10%. (see: [[#R01893|Kalulu et al., 2016]]; [[#R01911|Snyman et al., 2023]]).
|1970s-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.2 Strong government support
|e.g. [[#R01895|Maekawa et al., 2013]]; [[#R01908|Sabuhoro, 2006]]
|2003-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.3 Strong transboundary cooperation
|https://greatervirunga.org/; [[#R01905|Refisch & Jenson, 2016]]
|2003-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.1 Political and economic stability
|e.g. [[#R01895|Maekawa et al., 2013]]
|2003-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Social and civil security
|e.g. [[#R01895|Maekawa et al., 2013]]
|2003-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

The world's longest-running gorilla research station was established by Dian Fossey in the Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda in 1967. Her work continued after her death through the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund (DFGF), which is dedicated to the conservation, protection and research of gorillas and their habitats in Africa, and regional and international partners. Research that has been addressed by DFGF and national and international partners in/around the Volcanoes National Park focused on gorilla ecology, behavior, ranging patterns, development, physiology, population dynamics, measure of fitness, threats, evolution, and hard tissue. Gorilla Doctors was established in 1985 and studies gorilla health-related issues in and around the park. Despite still being conducted at lower numbers, research in social science involving local communities around the Volcanoes National Park has been increasing since early 2000s. <br>
Since 2003, DFGF also monitors and studies the wider gorilla ecosystem, including key plant and animal species (bamboo phenology, gorilla food biomass, golden monkeys, birds, amphibians, small and large mammals, invertebrates, climate, habitat assessments) and their interactions (see: https://gorillafund.org/what-we-do/scientific-research/scientific-publications/). Endemic plant and animal species to the Albertine Rift Region found in the Volcanoes National Park (amphibians [Roelke and Smith, 2010]: ''Arthroleptis adolfifriederici'', ''Leptopelis karissimbensis'', ''Leptopelis kivuensis'', ''Hyperolius castaneus'', ''Amietia nuttii'', ''Leptosiaphos graueri'', ''Philothamnus ruandae'', ''Atheris nitschei''; small mammals [Tuyisingize et al., 2010]: ''Hylomyscus vulcanorum'', ''Sylvisorex vulcanorum'', ''Praomys degraaffi'', ''Tachyoryctes ruandae''). Golden monkeys (''Cercopithecus mitis kandti'') is endemic to the region and is only found in the Virunga Massif and the Gishwati forest (Tuysingize et al., 2022).

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Tracker_Emmanuel_Hakizimana_studying_gorillas_29-JUL-21_KRC_Laban_Kayitete.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Trackers_moving_up_to_Rutibagana_area_01-AUG-2021_KRC_Jean_de_Dieu_Tuyizere_(6)_(2).jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]] </li></ul></div>
= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|mountain gorilla social, feeding, and ranging behavior has been intensively studied since 1967
|
|
|
|https://gorillafund.org/what-we-do/scientific-research/scientific-publications/
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02337|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02337|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|16.6
|17.8
|17.5
|17.9
|19.1
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1272
|1288
|1422
|1293
|1411
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|19.4
|28.4
|28.9
|31.6
|25.8
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.6
|6.9
|8.1
|7.5
|9.5
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Volcanoes National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5
|0.28
|4
|0.72
|5.5
|0.38
|6
|0.18
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1
|1.98
|3
|2.77
|1.5
|1.74
|3.5
|2.88
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|1.11
|30
|0.88
|29
|1.13
|29
|0.75
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Volcanoes NP.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Volcanoes National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Volcanoes NP.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Volcanoes National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://gorillafund.org/dian-fossey-gorilla-fund/a-gorilla-story-told-by-david-attenborough-behind-the-scenes-with-the-dian-fossey-gorilla-fund/ A Gorilla Story: Told by David Attenborough – Behind the Scenes with the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund]

{{#ev:youtube|https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6Qs4W0uwBw|320x210|inline}}

= References =

<span id="R01877"></span>Aveling, C., & Harcourt, A. H. (1984). A census of the Virunga gorillas. ''Oryx'', 18(1), 8-13. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300018524 doi:10.1017/s0030605300018524]

<span id="R01878"></span>Bush, G. K., Ikirezi, M., Daconto, G., Gray, M., & Fawcett, K. (2010). Assessing impacts from community conservation interventions around Parc National des Volcans, Rwanda.

<span id="R01879"></span>DeWitt, H. L., Gasore, J., Rupakheti, M., Potter, K. E., Prinn, R. G., Ndikubwimana, J. d. D., …, & Safari, B. (2019). Seasonal and diurnal variability in O 3 , black carbon, and CO measured at the Rwanda Climate Observatory. ''Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics'', 19(3), 2063-2078. [https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-19-2063-2019 doi:10.5194/acp-19-2063-2019]

<span id="R01880"></span>Doležlová, J., Pafčo, B., Modrý, D., & Pomajbíková, K. (2018). Parasite quantification. In D. Modrý, B. Pafčo, K. J. Petrželková, & H. Hasegawa (Eds.), Parasites of apes: An atlas of coproscopic diagnostics (pp. 34–38). Chimaira.

<span id="R01881"></span>Eckardt, W., Stoinski, T. S., Rosenbaum, S., & Santymire, R. (2019). Social and ecological factors alter stress physiology of Virunga mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). ''Ecology and Evolution'', 9(9), 5248-5259. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5115 doi:10.1002/ece3.5115]

<span id="R01882"></span>Evans, T. S., Lowenstine, L. J., Gilardi, K. V., Barry, P. A., Ssebide, B. J., Kinani, J. F., Nizeyimana, F., Noheri, J. B., Cranfield, M. R., Mudakikwa, A., Goldstein, T., Mazet, J. A. K., & Johnson, C. K. (2017). Mountain gorilla lymphocryptovirus has Epstein-Barr virus-like epidemiology and pathology in infants. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04877-1

<span id="R01883"></span>Fisher, S., Bellinger, D. C., Cropper, M. L., Kumar, P., Binagwaho, A., Koudenoukpo, J. B., …, & Landrigan, P. J. (2021). Air pollution and development in Africa: impacts on health, the economy, and human capital. ''The Lancet Planetary Health'', 5(10), e681-e688. [https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00201-1 doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(21)00201-1]

<span id="R01884"></span>Fossey, D. (1983). Gorillas in the mist. Houghton Mifflin Company.

<span id="R01885"></span>Granjon, A. ‐.C., Robbins, M. M., Arinaitwe, J., Cranfield, M. R., Eckardt, W., Mburanumwe, I., …, & Hickey, J. R. (2020). Estimating abundance and growth rates in a wild mountain gorilla population. ''Animal Conservation'', 23(4), 455-465. [https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12559 doi:10.1111/acv.12559]

<span id="R01886"></span>Gray, M., McNeilage, A., Fawcett, K., Robbins, M. M., Ssebide, B., Mbula, D., & Uwingeli, P. (2009). Censusing the mountain gorillas in the Virunga Volcanoes: Complete sweep method versus monitoring. African Journal of Ecology, 48(3), 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01142.x

<span id="R01887"></span>Gray, M., Roy, J., Vigilant, L., Fawcett, K., Basabose, A., Cranfield, M., …, & Robbins, M. M. (2013). Genetic census reveals increased but uneven growth of a critically endangered mountain gorilla population. ''Biological Conservation'', 158, 230-238. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.09.018 doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.09.018]

<span id="R01888"></span>Groom, A. F. G. (1973). Squeezing Out the Mountain Gorilla. ''Oryx'', 12(2), 207-215. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300011558 doi:10.1017/s0030605300011558]

<span id="R01889"></span>Harcourt, A. H., & Groom, A. F. G. (1972). Gorilla Census. ''Oryx'', 11(5), 355-363. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300010401 doi:10.1017/s0030605300010401]

<span id="R01890"></span>Hassell, J. M., Zimmerman, D., Cranfield, M. R., Gilardi, K., Mudakikwa, A., Ramer, J., …, & Lowenstine, L. J. (2017). Morbidity and mortality in infant mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei): A 46‐year retrospective review. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 79(10), 1-13. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22686 doi:10.1002/ajp.22686]

<span id="R01891"></span>Irakoze, J. d. (2024). The distribution and abundance of non-native fruiting trees and vines inside and outside the eastern part of the Volcanoes National Park. University of Rwanda, College of Science and Technology, School of Sciences, Department of Biology.

<span id="R01892"></span>Kalpers, J., Williamson, E. A., Robbins, M. M., McNeilage, A., Nzamurambaho, A., Lola, N., & Mugiri, G. (2003). Gorillas in the crossfire: population dynamics of the Virunga mountain gorillas over the past three decades. ''Oryx'', 37(3), 326-337. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605303000589 doi:10.1017/s0030605303000589]

<span id="R01893"></span>Kalulu, R., Tushabe, E., & Nsabimana, E. (2016). Local community attitude and perceptions towards tourism conservation policies in Rwanda: Case of Volcanoes National Park. Advances in Economics and Business, 4(12), 631–640. https://doi.org/10.13189/aeb.2016.041201

<span id="R01894"></span>Kwizera, E., Rumbeiha, W. K., Nishimwe, K., & Nziza, J. (2023). A survey to document toxic hazards in the zone surrounding Volcanoes National Park, a habitat for mountain gorillas, an endangered wildlife species in Rwanda. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2023.1320162

<span id="R01895"></span>Maekawa, M., Lanjouw, A., Rutagarama, E., & Sharp, D. (2013). Mountain gorilla tourism generating wealth and peace in post‐conflict Rwanda. ''Natural Resources Forum'', 37(2), 127-137. [https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12020 doi:10.1111/1477-8947.12020]

<span id="R01896"></span>Mazet, J. A. K., Genovese, B. N., Harris, L. A., Cranfield, M., Noheri, J. B., Kinani, J. F., …, & Gilardi, K. V. K. (2020). Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Detected in Mountain Gorilla Respiratory Outbreaks. ''EcoHealth'', 17(4), 449-460. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-020-01506-8 doi:10.1007/s10393-020-01506-8]

<span id="R01897"></span>McGuinness, S. (2014). The effects of human-wildlife conflict on conservation and development: A case study of Volcanoes National Park, northern Rwanda. University of Dublin, Trinity College, School of Natural Sciences.

<span id="R01898"></span>McNeilage, A. (1995). Mountain gorillas in the Virunga volcanoes: Ecology and carrying capacity. University of Bristol. [https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1525-1_19 doi:10.1007/978-94-009-1525-1_19]

<span id="R01899"></span>McNeilage, A. (2001). Diet and habitat use of two mountain gorilla groups in contrasting habitats in the Virungas. In ''Mountain Gorillas'' (pp. 265-292). Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511661631.011 doi:10.1017/cbo9780511661631.011]

<span id="R01900"></span>Morrison, R. E., Mushimiyimana, Y., Stoinski, T. S., & Eckardt, W. (2021). Rapid transmission of respiratory infections within but not between mountain gorilla groups. ''Scientific Reports'', 11(1), 19622. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-98969-8 doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98969-8]

<span id="R01901"></span>Muhasara, H., & Huggins, C. D. (2004). Land reform, land scarcity and post-conflict reconstruction: A case study of Rwanda. Eco-Conflicts, 3(3), 1–4. [https://landportal.org/node/74909 link]

<span id="R01902"></span>Petrželková, K. J., Samaš, P., Romportl, D., Uwamahoro, C., Červená, B., Pafčo, B., …, & Cranfield, M. (2022). Ecological drivers of helminth infection patterns in the Virunga Massif mountain gorilla population. ''International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife'', 17, 174-184. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.01.007 doi:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2022.01.007]

<span id="R01903"></span>Petrželková, K. J., Uwamahoro, C., Pafčo, B., Červená, B., Samaš, P., Mudakikwa, A., …, & Modrý, D. (2021). Heterogeneity in patterns of helminth infections across populations of mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei). ''Scientific Reports'', 11(1), 1-14. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-89283-4 doi:10.1038/s41598-021-89283-4]

<span id="R01904"></span>Plumptre, A. J., & Williamson, E. A. (n.d.). Conservation-oriented research in the Virunga region. In M. M. Robbins, P. Sicotte, & K. M. Stewart (Eds.), Mountain gorillas: Three decades of research at Karisoke (pp. 123–150). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511661631.006 [https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511661631.015 doi:10.1017/cbo9780511661631.015]

<span id="R01905"></span>Refisch, J., & Jenson, J. (2016). Transboundary collaboration in the Greater Virunga Landscape: From gorilla conservation to conflict-sensitive transboundary landscape management. In ''Governance, Natural Resources, and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding'' (pp. 825-842). Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203109793-39 doi:10.4324/9780203109793-39]

<span id="R01906"></span>Rizinjirabake, F., Mukamugema, J., Ndagijimana, J. N., Murwanashyaka, T., & Mizero, A. (2024). Ethnobotany Survey of Medicinal Plants in Home Gardens around Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. ''Rwanda Journal of Engineering, Science, Technology and Environment'', 6(1), 1-13. [https://doi.org/10.4314/rjeste.v6i1.5 doi:10.4314/rjeste.v6i1.5]

<span id="R01907"></span>Robbins, M. M., Gray, M., Fawcett, K. A., Nutter, F. B., Uwingeli, P., Mburanumwe, I., …, & Robbins, A. M. (2011). Extreme Conservation Leads to Recovery of the Virunga Mountain Gorillas. ''PLoS ONE'', 6(6), e19788. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019788 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019788]

<span id="R01908"></span>Sabuhoro, E. (2006). Ecotourism as a potential conservation incentive for local communities around Rwanda’s Parc National des Volcans. University of Kent at Canterbury, Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology.

<span id="R01909"></span>Schaller, G. (1963). The mountain gorilla: Ecology and behavior. University of Chicago Press.

<span id="R01910"></span>Sholley, C. (1989). Census of the mountain gorillas in the Virungas of Central Africa.

<span id="R01911"></span>Snyman, S. (., Fitzgerald, K., Bakteeva, A., Ngoga, T., & Mugabukomeye, B. (2023). Benefit-sharing from protected area tourism: A 15-year review of the Rwanda tourism revenue sharing programme. ''Frontiers in Sustainable Tourism'', 1. [https://doi.org/10.3389/frsut.2022.1052052 doi:10.3389/frsut.2022.1052052]

<span id="R01912"></span>Stewart, K. J., Sicotte, P., & Robbins, M. M. (2001). Mountain gorillas of the Virungas: a short history. In ''Mountain Gorillas'' (pp. 1-26). Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511661631.002 doi:10.1017/cbo9780511661631.002]

<span id="R01913"></span>Uzabaho, E., Kwizera, N., Moore, J. F., & Nsabimana, D. (2023). An occupancy analysis of the factors affecting the presence of carnivores at the national park‐human community interface in Rwanda. ''African Journal of Ecology'', 62(1). [https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.13238 doi:10.1111/aje.13238]

<span id="R01914"></span>Uzamukunda, S. (2015). Improving the existing farming systems towards a climate smart agriculture in Musanze district of Rwanda. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Landscape Architecture, Horticulture and Crop Production Science. van der Hoek, Y., Bugingo, L. C., Tuyisingize, D., Eckardt, W., Bizuru, E., & Ngiramahoro, M. (2023). Observations on the effects of fire on East African Afroalpine vegetation. African Journal of Ecology, 61(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.13155

<span id="R01915"></span>Vedder, A. L. (1989). In the hall of the mountain king. Animal Kingdom, 92, 30–43.

<span id="R01916"></span>Vedder, A. L., & Aveling, C. (n.d.). Census of the Virunga population of Gorilla gorilla beringei.

<span id="R01917"></span>Weber, A. W., & Vedder, A. (1983). Population dynamics of the virunga gorillas: 1959–1978. ''Biological Conservation'', 26(4), 341-366. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(83)90096-4 doi:10.1016/0006-3207(83)90096-4]

<span id="R01918"></span>Weber, A. W. (1987). Socioecologic factors in the conservation of Afromontane forest reserves. In Primate conservation in the tropical rain forest (pp. 205–229).

<span id="R01919"></span>Weber, A. W. (1989). Conservation and development on the Zaire–Nile Divide: An analysis of value conflict and convergence in the management of Afromontane forests in Rwanda [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison].

<span id="R01920"></span>Weber, B., & Vedder, A. (2001). Afterword: mountain gorillas at the turn of the century. In ''Mountain Gorillas'' (pp. 413-424). Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511661631.017 doi:10.1017/cbo9780511661631.017]

<span id="R02100"></span>Harcourt, A. H. (1986). Gorilla conservation in the Virunga volcanoes. IUCN.

<span id="R02101"></span>Hoek, R. van der, et al. (2023). Fire disturbance and gorilla habitat in Volcanoes National Park. Biological Conservation, 280, 109946.

<span id="R02102"></span>Spelman, L. H., Gilardi, K. V. K., Lukasik-Braum, M., Kinani, J., Nyirakaragire, E., Lowenstine, L. J., & Cranfield, M. R. (2013). Respiratory disease in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Rwanda, 1990–2010: outbreaks, clinical course, and medical management. ''Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine'', 44(4), 1027-1035. [https://doi.org/10.1638/2013-0014r.1 doi:10.1638/2013-0014r.1]

<span id="R02337"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund''' Date:''' 2025-05-29 07:26:00

Virunga National Park

2026-10-15T21:55:09Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Virunga National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Virunga_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Virunga_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Virunga_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Virunga_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Virunga_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-0.250721, 29.391204~[[Virunga National Park]]~''Gorilla beringei beringei'', ''Gorilla beringei graueri'', ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''), Grauer's gorillas (''Gorilla beringei graueri'') and mountain gorillas (''Gorilla beringei beringei'') are present in Virunga National Park.
* It has been estimated that 10 Grauer's gorillas and over 350 mountain gorillas occur in the site; the chimpanzee population is unknown.
* The mountain gorilla population trend is increasing; the Grauer's gorilla population shows a slight increase following targeted population reinforcement efforts, though it remains extremely small and vulnerable; the chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 7,900 km².
* Key threats to great apes are poaching, encroachment, logging and fuelwood collection, and insecurity issues further complicating conservation efforts.
* Conservation activities have focused on anti-poaching patrols, providing employment opportunities to local communities, tourism, education, and supply of hydroelectric power to the local population. A population reinforcement initiative conducted in late 2024 involved the translocation of four adult female eastern lowland gorillas from the GRACE sanctuary. The individuals have since successfully integrated into an existing wild group and therefore are counted as part of the wild population in Virunga National Park.
* The national park is the most biologically diverse and the first to be established in the African continent.
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Elephant_herd-min.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Virunga National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Gorilla_VNP.jpg | 300px | thumb| none |© Virunga National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Nyiragongo_VNP.jpg | 300px | thumb| none |Mount Nyiragongo © Virunga National Park]] </li></ul></div>
= Site characteristics =

Virunga National Park is located in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and comprises the most biologically diverse protected area on the continent ([https://virunga.org/ Virunga National Park n.d.]). The national park was first established in 1925 as Albert National Park. In 1960, following the country's independence from Belgium, it was renamed Virunga National Park. In 1979 the site was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site ([[#R02013|UNESCO 2021]]).The park is unique with its active chain of volcanoes and rich diversity of habitats. Its range contains an amalgamation of steppes, savannas and plains, marshlands, low altitude and afro-montane forest belts to unique afro-alpine vegetation and permanent glaciers and snow on Monts Rwenzori whose peaks reach in 5,000 m height ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/63/ UNESCO]). The park is home to 218 mammal species, 706 bird species, 109 reptile species and 78 amphibian species ([https://virunga.org/ Virunga National Park n.d.]). It also serves as refuge to 22 primate species, including mountain gorillas (''Gorilla beringei beringei''), the eastern lowland or Grauer's gorilla (''Gorilla beringei graueri'') and the eastern chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''). A third of the world's mountain gorilla population is found in the park. The density of biomass of wildlife is one of the highest on the earth Planet (27.6 ton/sq.km). Among the wide diversity of ungulates found at the site, certain rare species are found, such as the okapi (''Okapi johnstoni''), endemic to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the red forest duiker (''Cephalophus rubidus''), endemic to Monts Rwenzori ([https://virunga.org/ Virunga National Park n.d.]). The site is a Key Biodiversity Area owing to its global importance to the planet’s overall health and wealth in biodiversity ([[#R01874|Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership 2020]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Gorilla beringei beringei'', ''Gorilla beringei graueri'', ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|7,900 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -0.250721 , Lon: 29.391204
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Savanna, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
[[File: Mountain_Gorillas_Virunga_NP_Dirck_Byler_2019.jpeg | 400px | thumb| none |© Dirck Byler]]
= Ape status =

The last mountain gorilla census in DRC, Rwanda and Uganda in the Virunga massif was in 2016. The results showed a total of 266 gorillas found on the Congo side. From then until December 2021, the number of gorillas has increased to over 350 individuals (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). The chimpanzee population in the park is unknown. Eastern lowland, or Grauer’s gorillas, are extremely rare in the park (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). A population reinforcement initiative conducted in late 2024 involved the translocation of four adult female Grauer's gorillas from the GRACE sanctuary. The individuals have since successfully integrated into an existing wild group and therefore are counted as part of the wild population in Virunga National Park (Parker, L. pers comm. 2026).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2025
|
|
|
|11.0
|Virunga National Park
|Full count
|Count method
|Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2025
|
|
|
|150-200
|Virunga National Park
|Opportunistic observation
|Count method
|Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|Estimate based on direct observation, approx. 150-200 for the site.
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2024
|
|
|
|350.0
|Virunga National Park
|Full count
|Count method
|Virunga National Park 2024
|Abundance estimate accounting for 249 habituated individuals.
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2021
|
|
|
|350.0
|Virunga National Park
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|
|Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2016
|
|
|
|266.0
|Virunga National Park
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|
|Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Ongoing security issues continue to present challenges for the management of the park, although the number of militia operating in the area has declined over the past few years ([[#R02013|UNESCO 2021]]). Issues of encroachment and deforestation for charcoal production continue to have a severe impact on the integrity of the park; as of 2021, approximately 18.5% of the site is affected by encroachment ([[#R02013|UNESCO 2021]]).

The eruption of Mount Nyiragongo in May 2021 has further complicated the situation and compounded the COVID-19 crisis. Around 234,000 were displaced from the surrounding area, and houses, schools, and health centers were destroyed ([https://www.unicef.org/drcongo/en/stories/nyiragongo-volcano-eruption-the-aftermath UNICEF]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|New villages built in the park: Kasindi/Lubiriha and Kilorirwe (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). Fisherman villages around Lake Edward have also increased and occupy many hectares of the park (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). The threat has been steadily increasing since the 1980s, but there was a steep increase post 1994 (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|10 Geological events
|10.1 Volcanoes
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|The Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira volcanoes are active volcanoes in the park. Chimpanzees residing on the slopes of Nyamuragira were threatened by the eruptions of January 2010. In addition to the impacts of mortality and further habitat loss, the eruptions reduce the chimpanzees’ ability to survive in a region where human development around the volcanoes prevents migration to other areas ([[#R01875|Maldonado et al. 2012]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1.1 Shifting agriculture
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Land conversion for agriculture (slash-and-burn agriculture). Encroachment started decades ago in the 1960s and 70s in some areas but it really accelerated after 1994 when large numbers of people were displaced into the region after the genocide in Rwanda (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|1994-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Livestock farming / grazing of domesticated animals ([[#R02013|UNESCO 2021]]). Ongoing in 2025 (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.1 Oil & gas drilling
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Concerns over potential oil exploitation and exploration ([[#R02013|UNESCO 2021]]). The issue first appeared around 2010–2011 when exploration concessions overlapping the park were granted (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Present (unknown severity)
|Different roads across the park are present in Virunga National park, e.g., between Mutwanga- Beni-Karuruma-Kambo-Ishasha-Nyakakoma-Rutshuru-Kanyabayonga (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). UNESCO, reports Road and military infrastructure within the site (UNESCO World Heritage Center 2025).
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Poaching by armed groups ([[#R02013|UNESCO 2021]]). Many poachers are arrested by rangers during patrols in the park. Most of them are sent to the court and are jailed. In addition, many traps and illegal hunting camps are destroyed by rangers during patrols (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.4 Capture for the live animal trade
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Illegal pet trade of chimpanzees. It is estimated that the illegal pet trade risk for eastern gorillas in the park is low given the extreme and daily monitoring to which these populations benefit. The population of chimpanzees in Tongo are vulnerable to the pet trade as they are situated in a volatile environment of armed conflict (armed groups are known to conduct illegal wildlife trafficking) and substantial land invasion for agricultural purposes. Chimpanzee populations in the Semliki Valley are largely unmonitored as this area is isolated and susceptible to armed conflict, leaving them vulnerable to poaching and illegal pet trade (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Human wildlife conflict (HWC) is a growing threat for the park’s population of mountain gorillas as the electric fencing has been destroyed during the current conflict. Mountain gorillas are increasingly going into farmers’ fields for crop raiding. HWC for the park’s small population of eastern lowland gorillas is (for the moment) non-existent as these gorillas rarely range at the periphery of park borders and are not likely to encounter humans (other than park staff). There is a dedicated monitoring team who closely monitors their movements on a daily basis. HWC in regards to chimpanzees is still relatively high given their geographical location in volatile and agriculturally exploited areas, particularly in the area of Tongo. Cases of chimpanzee attacks (sometimes fatal) on humans are not uncommon in this area (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Deforestation for charcoal production has led to widespread depletion of forests in the lowlands (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2025).
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Civil unrest stemming from two civil wars and the illegal extraction of natural resources in the park, from which armed groups (e.g., ADF/NALU, FDLR, Mai Mai) continue to make revenue. Over 200 park rangers have been killed in the line of duty ([[#R02014|Virunga National Park]]). Influx of 1 million refugees occupying adjacent parts of the Park (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2025). Insecurity has been a factor since the mid-1990s, beginning with the First Congo War and continuing almost without interruption since then (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|1995-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.1 Invasive non-native/alien species
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|For all three great ape taxa in the site the threat of invasive plants is relatively low. The forests of Tshiaberimu and Mikeno (home to eastern gorillas) are largely intact and although there is some evidence of invasive species in these areas, the risk remains low for the moment. Likewise for chimpanzee populations in large forested areas. Chimpanzees located in the Ishasha Valley are situated in a gallery forest which is mostly protected from the savanna invasive species, however, there is still a risk these species will eventually encroach the gallery forest (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Risk of acquiring human pathogens, particularly respiratory diseases. Respiratory illness is the second most common cause of morbidity and mortality in habituated mountain gorillas, with outbreaks that occur annually and often cause group-wide morbidity ([[#R01873|Gilardi et al. 2021]]). Risks to gorillas and other wildlife were already being noted in the 1980s, around the time of the first habituation efforts, but they’ve become much more prominent since the 2000s with growing human activity and tourism. Respiratory disease has always been a concern, especially as it relates to tourism. Serious disease outbreaks like Ebola, Marburg, Mpox also seem to be increasing over recent years (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|2000-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.4 Garbage & solid waste
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Trash observed near fishing villages around Lake Edward. In addition, poachers sometimes mix poison with water (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). Ongoing in 2025 (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Threats]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Rangers_and_dogs_VNP.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Virunga National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Rangers_VNP.jpg | 300px | thumb| none |© Virunga National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Trap_VNP.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © Virunga National Park]] </li></ul></div>
= Conservation activities =

In 2011, the Congolese National Parks Authority, (Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature, ICCN), and the Virunga Foundation (then known as the Africa Conservation Foundation), entered into a partnership to manage the national park. The Virunga Alliance was then created with the support from the EU. The Virunga Alliance is a development program that aims to end illegal and destructive resource extraction in the region by addressing the direct causes of poverty and conflict. The program was established to create more than 100,000 jobs to draw people out of armed militia groups and into work that fosters peacebuilding. The program is focused on tourism, sustainable energy, and agriculture ([https://virunga.org/alliance/ Virunga Alliance]). The park is part of the Greater Virunga Landscape (GVL), a transboundary collaboration between DRC, Rwanda, and Uganda to conserve the landscape.

Four sites have been chosen for monitoring and for tourism: the Mikeno sector, with 226 habituated mountain gorillas; Tshabirimu, with 6 eastern lowland gorillas; Tongo, with 28 chimpanzees, where habituation started in 1991; and Rumangabo, the headquarters of the park, where 18 chimpanzees have been habituated since 2015 and tourists can observe while visiting the station (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021).

Four main conservation pillars were established in 2010 with the Virunga Foundation in cooperation with the DRC government to protect the Virunga National Park:

1.Conservation: fight against poachers and destruction of the ecosystem of the park. The protection of highly important ecological corridors connecting different sectors of the park through regular ranger patrols is one of the main activities.

2.Tourism: development of tourism infrastructures.

3. Protection of Lake Edward against poachers and eviction of all squatters who take young fish.

4. Hydroelectric power plant construction around Virunga National Park which allows the local communities to develop their economy.

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.1 Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal ape bushmeat
|Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|The park has nearly 700 rangers who patrol the park ([ https://virunga.org/alliance/virunga-rangers/ Virunga National Park n.d.]). Aerial patrols are also conducted. In addition, patrols regulate fishing activities in Lake Edward and evict squatters (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021). Anti‑poaching, anti‑charcoal and security patrols by ICCN/Virunga Foundation aim to deter illegal activities and protect habituated gorilla groups (UNESCO World Heritage Center 2025). Patrols have been conducted since the park's establishment (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).

|
|1925-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.6 Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
|Snare removals (Gorilla Doctors 2025; Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021).
|Gorilla Doctors, ICCN
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|Tourists and staff wear surgical masks in the presence of the gorillas ([[#R02069|Virunga National Park]]).
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.10 Treat sick/injured apes
|Targeted treatments reduce mortality from injuries and respiratory disease in habituated groups (Gorilla Doctors 2025).
|Gorilla Doctors, ICCN
|2007-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site
|Routine health monitoring (Gorilla Doctors 2025).
|Gorilla Doctors, ICCN
|2007-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.3 Limit time that researchers/tourists are allowed to spend with habituated apes
|Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Education programme teaching local communities the importance of the park (COCO) (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Virunga Foundation recruits members of the local community (HUGO), who receive a stipend for patrolling and gathering data (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is designated as a national park.
|
|1925-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Restoration in central sector due to invasive plants (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2022-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.7 Build fences to keep humans out
|Construction of fences. Building fences to reduce the movement of animals from the park and stop human encroachment and poachers (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.1 Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers
|Treks led by Virunga rangers and local pisteurs, who monitor ten habituated gorilla groups every day ([[#R02069|Virunga National Park]]).
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.9 Rehabilitate injured/orphaned apes
|The Senkwekwe Center opened in 2010 in the park's headquarters to take care of orphaned gorillas ([[#R02070|Virunga National Park]]) and stopped operations in 2022 (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2010-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Create employees for local communities; supply the local communities with credits to help them improve their businesses; support farmers; provide employment to local youth and to widows of rangers (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Hydroelectric power is supplied from 4 stations around the park (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2021-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Due to ongoing security concerns, the park has faced several temporary closures since 2018, but between 2014 and 2016, substantial revenue came from tourism (Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2014-2018
|}

[[Conservation activities]]
[[File: Agriculture_VNP.jpg | 400px | thumb| none | © Virunga National Park]]
= Challenges =

The main challenges to ape conservation at the park include lack of security due to different rebel groups in the region. In 1986 when Uganda rebels ADF/NALU crossed into DRC and remained in the park around the Rwenzori massif (North sector), where many chimpanzees were present. In 1994 millions of refugees and defeated militaries crossed the border and settled around the Mikeno Sector, home to mountain gorillas. Since then, rebels continue to kill animals, rangers, cut trees for commercial charcoal, kidnap local people, and are involved in other criminal activities (Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021).

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Ecological context
|5.1 Ecological constraints (e.g., susceptibility to climate change, difficult terrain)
|UNESCO World Heritage Center 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Shengeri, A.R., pers. comm. 2021, Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|2021- Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.1 Effective leadership
|Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.2 Effective coordination
|Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.3 Adaptive management practices
|Parker, L. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.3 Strong transboundary cooperation
|[https://greatervirunga.org/ GVTC Regional coordination across DRC–Rwanda–Uganda]
|2007-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

In 1990, the habituation of gorillas and chimpanzees was established in Virunga National Park.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02336|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02336|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|20.6
|21.7
|21.5
|21.9
|23
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1401
|1396
|1514
|1374
|1536
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|17.2
|22.6
|23.8
|24.3
|20.6
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.7
|8.7
|10.2
|9.1
|12.1
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Virunga National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|7.5
|0.71
|4
|0.48
|8.5
|0.35
|12.5
|0.72
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0.5
|16.67
|0.5
|16.67
|1
|33.33
|-
|River flood
|3.75
|2.2
|5.5
|4.57
|2.5
|0.38
|8.75
|1.91
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.87
|30
|0.85
|29
|0.88
|29
|0.56
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Virunga NP.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Virunga National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Virunga NP.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Virunga National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://virunga.org/ Virunga National Park - official website]

[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/63/ UNESCO - Virunga National Park]

[https://greatervirunga.org/ The Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration]

= References =

<span id="R01873"></span>Gilardi, K., Nziza, J., Ssebide, B., Syaluha, E. K., Muvunyi, R., Aruho, R., …, & Masozera, A. B. (2021). Endangered mountain gorillas and COVID‐19: One health lessons for prevention and preparedness during a global pandemic. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 84(4-5). [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23291 doi:10.1002/ajp.23291]

<span id="R01874"></span>Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership (2020) Key Biodiversity Areas factsheet: Virunga National Park. Extracted from the World Database of Key Biodiversity Areas. Developed by the Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership: BirdLife International, IUCN, American Bird Conservancy, Amphibian Survival Alliance, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Global Environment Facility, Global Wildlife Conservation, NatureServe, Rainforest Trust, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, World Wildlife Fund and Wildlife Conservation Society. Downloaded from http://www.keybiodiversityareas.org/ on 12/12/2021.

<span id="R01875"></span>Maldonado, O., Aveling, C., Cox, D., Nixon, S., Nishuli, R., Merlo, D., Pintea, L. & Williamson, E.A. (2012). Grauer’s Gorillas and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko, Tayna and Itombwe Landscape): Conservation Action Plan 2012–2022. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation & Tourism, Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature & the Jane Goodall Institute. 66pp https://www.iucngreatapes.org/grauers-gorillas-and-chimpanzees [http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/pdf/Eastern_DRC_CAP.pdf link]

<span id="R01876"></span>Virunga National Park (2025) Rapport d’évaluation du Bien-Être des Gorilles de Montagne des Virunga 2024. Unpublished report.

<span id="R02336"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02013"></span>UNESCO 2021. https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/4056

<span id="R02014"></span>Virunga National Park. https://virunga.org/alliance/virunga-rangers/

<span id="R02069"></span>Virunga National Park. https://visit.virunga.org/treks/mountain-gorilla-trek/

<span id="R02070"></span>Virunga National Park. https://virunga.org/wildlife/primates/mountain-gorillas/gorilla-orphans/

'''Page created by: '''Rwimo Shengeri Augustin & Natsuno Shinagawa''' Date:''' 2022-01-17

'''Page updated by: '''Laura Parker''' Date:''' 2026-04-30

Usala Forest

2026-10-15T21:55:08Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Usala Forest]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Usala_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Usala_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Usala_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Usala_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Usala_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-0.5275, 28.2898~[[Usala Forest]]~''Gorilla beringei graueri''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') & Grauer's gorillas (''Gorilla beringei graueri'') are present in Usala Forest.
* In 2007, the gorilla population was estimated to range between 240 to 410 individuals. The chimpanzee population is unknown.
* The gorilla population trend is stable; the chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 3,500 km².
* Important threats to great apes include illegal mining and the presence of armed groups.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

Usala forest lies to the east of [[Maiko National Park]], in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is among the most remote, intact, and inaccessible blocks of tropical rainforest remaining in Africa ([[#R01864|Kümpel et al. 2015]]). The site is also important for the conservation of okapis ([[#R01864|Kümpel et al. 2015]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|-
|Area
|3,500 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -0.5275 , Lon: 28.2898
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Survey results suggest that between 2007 and 2014, the gorilla population in Usala remained relatively stable ([[#R01865|Nixon et al. 2015]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2014
|Present
|
|
|
|Usala Forest (340 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01865|Nixon et al. 2015]]
|Survey effort: 200 km. 28 nest sites were encountered.
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2007
|
|
|
|240-410
|Usala Forest (850 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01865|Nixon et al. 2015]]
|Assessment led by the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International. 34 nest sites and large gorilla groups were encountered. Abundance estimate is tentative. Survey effort: 240 km.
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Presence of armed groups involved in illegal mining activities ([[#R01864|Kümpel et al. 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

Widespread presence of armed groups and illegal mining operations present serious challenges for the implementation of conservation activities ([[#R01864|Kümpel et al. 2015]]).

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|[[#R01864|Kümpel et al. 2015]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Nixon, S.C., Mufabule, K., Eliba, A. & Patule, I.M. 2007. A prospection survey of the Usala Forest and proposed Usala Community Reserve, Democratic Republic of Congo. Unpublished report submitted to DFGI, Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International, Goma, DRC. Available at http://fondationkumu.files.wordpress.com/2012/05/usalaprospection-2007.pdf

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02335|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02335|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|22.8
|24
|23.7
|24.2
|25.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1648
|1637
|1699
|1599
|1729
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|5.8
|11.4
|12
|15.5
|13.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|7.1
|7.5
|8.3
|8.1
|11.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Usala Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4
|0
|3.5
|0
|5
|0
|16.5
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|1.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|2
|1.04
|2.75
|2.04
|1.75
|1
|5.5
|2.4
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.39
|30
|0.38
|29
|0.47
|29
|0.28
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Usala_Forest.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Usala Forest]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Usala_Forest.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Usala Forest]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01864"></span>Kümpel, N. F., Quinn, A., Queslin, E., Grange, S., Mallon, D. & Mapilanga, J-J. (2015). Okapi (Okapia johnstoni): Conservation Strategy and Status Review. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN and Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature (ICCN). pp. 58

<span id="R01865"></span>Nixon, S., Kaghoma, C. & Vyalengerera, M. (2015). The status of Grauer’s gorilla in the Usala Forest. Gorilla Journal (Journal of Berggorilla and Regenwald Direkthilfe) 50. [https://berggorilla.org/en/home/news-archive/article-view/the-status-of-grauers-gorilla-in-the-usala-forest link]

<span id="R02335"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2020-12-29

Ugalla

2026-10-15T21:55:07Z

WikiEdit:

[[East Africa]] > [[Tanzania]] > [[Ugalla]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ugalla?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ugalla?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ugalla?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ugalla?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Ugalla?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-5.811084, 31.901811~[[Ugalla]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Ugalla.
* It has been estimated that 322 (CI: 227–373) individuals occur in the site.
* The chimpanzees population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 3,352 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are poaching and habitat encroachment.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

The Ugalla region is located approximately 65 km east of Lake Tanganyika, in western Tanzania ([[#R01857|Moore & Vigilant 2014]]). A large part of the region is found within the East Tongwe Forest Reserve and is not part of the national park system of Tanzania ([[#R01857|Moore & Vigilant 2014]]). The site covers approximately 3,350 sq.km and is one of the most seasonal, dry, and open chimpanzee habitats ([[#R01857|Moore & Vigilant 2014]]). The region is classified as savanna-woodland; the grassy groundcover is extensive, the drought season takes place between May and October, and there is minimal rainfall. Small strips of forest occur around the ephemeral rivers of Ugalla ([[#R01857|Moore & Vigilant 2014]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|3,352 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -5.811084 , Lon: 31.901811
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Grassland, Savanna, Grassland
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2009-2010
|
|
|0.25 (0.16-0.38)
|322 (227-373)
|Ugalla region (624 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01857|Moore & Vigilant 2014]]
|Standard and spatially explicit genetic capture-recapture methods
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|1995-2005
|
|
|0.07-0.09
|200-300
|Ugalla (3,352 km²)
|Line transects & recces
|
|[[#R01858|Ogawa et al. 2007]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The area has been under increasing pressure from human disturbance. The greatest threats include agricultural expansion, cattle herding, fire, logging, and poaching ([[#R01856|Masanja 2014]]). Hunting with snares is very common, but large game such as buffalo (''Syncerus caffer''), rhinoceros (''Diceros bicornis'') or elephant (''Loxodonta africana'') are hunted with firearms. Elephant, rhinoceros and lion numbers have declined sharply in Ugalla, along with increased illegal ivory trade ([[#R01856|Masanja 2014]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Poaching is a serious problem in Ugalla because of poverty and a massive increase in demand for animal protein ([[#R01856|Masanja 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|People burn grassland during the dry season. Although the fires have direct and indirect influences on vegetation and wild animals, trees don't die from the fires; the woodland in the area is considered fire-adapted ([[#R01858|Ogawa 2007]]).
|Ongoing (2007)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

A behavioral study of chimpanzees at the site documented the use of tools to dig for plant underground storage organs (USOs), suggesting that exploitation of such resources was within the cognitive and technological reach of the earliest hominins ([[#R01855|Hernandez-Aguilar, Moore & Pickering 2007]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Using tools to dig for plant underground storage organs
|
|
|
|[[#R01855|Hernandez-Aguilar, Moore & Pickering 2007]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02334|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02334|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|21.2
|22.3
|22.3
|22.3
|23.8
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1106
|1089
|1131
|1076
|1123
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|128.9
|128.3
|124.3
|130
|126.9
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|4.2
|2.5
|3.8
|2.4
|4.6
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Ugalla'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|0.5
|0.05
|0
|0
|1
|0.1
|0.5
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1
|0.1
|2
|0.36
|1.75
|0.09
|4
|0.41
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|2.55
|30
|2.41
|29
|2.69
|29
|2.65
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Ugalla_Deborah_Moore.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Ugalla]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Ugalla_Deborah_Moore.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Ugalla]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01855"></span>Hernandez-Aguilar, R. A., Moore, J., & Pickering, T. R. (2007). Savanna chimpanzees use tools to harvest the underground storage organs of plants. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', 104(49), 19210-19213. [https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0707929104 doi:10.1073/pnas.0707929104]

<span id="R01856"></span>Masanja, G. F. (2014). Human population growth and wildlife extinction in Ugalla ecosystem, western Tanzania. Journal of Sustainable Development Studies, 5(2). [http://infinitypress.info/index.php/jsds/article/view/596 link]

<span id="R01857"></span>Moore, D. L., & Vigilant, L. (2014). A population estimate of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Ugalla region using standard and spatially explicit genetic capture–recapture methods. American Journal of Primatology, 76(4), 335–346. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22237 doi:10.1002/ajp.22237]

<span id="R01858"></span>Ogawa, H., Idani, G., Moore, J., Pintea, L., & Hernandez-Aguilar, A. (2007). Sleeping Parties and Nest Distribution of Chimpanzees in the Savanna Woodland, Ugalla, Tanzania. ''International Journal of Primatology'', 28(6), 1397-1412. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-007-9210-0 doi:10.1007/s10764-007-9210-0]

<span id="R02334"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2021-11-14

UFA 10-065

2026-10-15T21:55:06Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[UFA 10-065]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-065?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-065?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-065?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-065?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-065?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|5.350849, 13.441975~[[UFA 10-065]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in UFA 10-065.
* In 2012, it was estimated that 380 gorillas inhabit in the site.
* The population trends are unknown.
* Great apes in the site are mainly threatened by hunting and logging.

= Site characteristics =

The site is a logging concession neighboring [[Deng Deng National Park]] in Cameroon.Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and central chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) are present in the site ([[#R01850|Maisels et al. 2013]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|500 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 5.350849 , Lon: 13.441975
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2012
|
|2.5 (1.5‐4.4)
|0.76 (0.42-1.34)
|380 (215-670)
|UFA 10-065 (500 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01850|Maisels et al. 2013]]
|
|CMR0028, CMR0029<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+1 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0123</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|2012
|
|0.09 (0.03‐0.3)
|
|
|UFA 10-065 (500 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01850|Maisels et al. 2013]]
|Chimpanzee density was too low to estimate accurately. Density and abundance not calculated due to low encounters.
|CMR0028, CMR0029<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+1 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0123</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2010
|
|3.5
|1.29 (0.7-2.4)
|459 (247-854)
|UFA 10-065 (500 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01850|Maisels et al. 2013]]
|
|CMR0028, CMR0029<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+1 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0123</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Presence of snares, gunshots, hunting camps, and cartridge cases throughout the park and logging concession, indicating ongoing hunting ([[#R01850|Maisels et al., 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Signs of extraction of of bark, honey or palm wine ([[#R01850|Maisels et al. 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Logging activities causing habitat fragmentation and degradation in the area, as the UFA is part of a large logging concession ([[#R01850|Maisels et al., 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

WCS began working in the Deng Deng landscape (including UFA 10-065) in early 2009 as part of a collaborative effort with the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (MINFOF), supported financially by the French Development Agency (AFD). The area hosts the northernmost known population of lowland gorillas and is also home to other threatened species, including chimpanzees, elephants, hippopotamuses, giant pangolins, and yellow-backed duikers ([[#R01851|WCS n.d]].).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Great ape surveys and human activity surveys have been conducted in the area and surroundings ([[#R01851|WCS n.d.]], [[#R01850|Maisels et al. 2013]]).
|Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
|2009-Ongoing (2013)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Environmental education and awareness raising for the protection of great apes and biodiversity ([[#R01851|WCS n.d]].).
|Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
|Ongoing (2009)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Capacity building in natural resources management and support for livelihood initiatives ([[#R01851|WCS n.d]].).
|Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
|Ongoing (2009)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

= Enablers =

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|[[#R01850|Maisels et al., 2013]].
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02333|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02333|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.1
|25.4
|25.1
|25.5
|26.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1514
|1574
|1579
|1577
|1610
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|46.9
|42.4
|46
|42.5
|46.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.9
|7.2
|7.1
|6.7
|7.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in UFA 10-065'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|9
|0.22
|7
|0.34
|8
|0.2
|12
|0.25
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0.5
|50
|1.5
|100
|2
|100
|3.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.75
|1.13
|1
|0.81
|0.5
|1.47
|1.75
|3.01
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.75
|30
|0.76
|29
|0.76
|29
|0.77
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_UFA_10-065.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in UFA 10-065]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_UFA_10-065.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in UFA 10-065]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01850"></span>Maisels, F., Strindberg, S., Ambahe, R., Ambassa, E., Yara, C. N., Pouomegne, B., …, & Fotso, R. (2013). Deng Deng National Park and UFA 10–065, Republic of Cameroon. Wildlife and Human Impact Survey 2012. Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS).

<span id="R01851"></span>Wildlife Conservation Society. (n.d.). Deng Deng National Park. https://cameroon.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Deng-Deng-National-Park.aspx

<span id="R02333"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Isabel Ordaz-Nemeth''' Date:''' 2024-11-28 10:30:00

'''Page updated by: '''Isabel Ordaz-Nemeth''' Date:''' 2025-10-22

UFA 10-064 ZIC31

2026-10-15T21:55:05Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[UFA 10-064_ZIC31]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-064_ZIC31?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-064_ZIC31?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-064_ZIC31?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-064_ZIC31?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-064_ZIC31?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|1.955004, 15.927939~[[UFA 10-064_ZIC31]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in UFA 10-064_ZIC31.
* In 2018, it was estimated that 2,270 gorillas inhabit the site.
* The population trend is unknown.

= Site characteristics =

UFA 10-064/ZIC 31, part of the transboundary Sangha Trinational (TNS) UNESCO World Heritage Site, is a biodiversity hotspot that supports endangered species such as gorillas, chimpanzees, elephants, duikers, buffaloes, pangolins, and various primates like colobus monkeys and gray-cheeked mangabeys, as documented in wildlife inventories from 2015 and 2018. This ecologically significant region provides critical habitat for species threatened by poaching and habitat loss, while its dense subtropical/tropical moist lowland forests play a vital role in carbon sequestration, helping to mitigate climate change. With over two decades of conservation efforts, including biodiversity monitoring and sustainable management of overlapping forest management units and hunting zones, the area also holds cultural value for Indigenous peoples and local communities who rely on it for traditional practices, subsistence activities, and sacred sites. As a buffer zone adjacent to Lobéké National Park, it enhances regional biodiversity conservation; however, it faces ongoing threats from illegal poaching, logging, mining, and the escalating impacts of climate change and human encroachment, underscoring the urgent need for continued conservation action ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|1,159.17 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 1.955004 , Lon: 15.927939
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession and community managed hunting interest zone
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|2.20 (1.49-3.26)
|2,556 (1,729-3,778)
|UFA 10-064_ZIC31
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|47 transects were covered and an effort of 94km was made.
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|2.70 (1.64-4.45)
|2,270 (1,378-3,738)
|UFA 10-064_ZIC31
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|The highest densities of great apes are found in ZIC 31. These increases in average values are due to the fact that great apes are not among the primary targets of poaching in the area. Additionally, they benefit from local customs and traditions that prohibit the consumption of gorilla and chimpanzee meat in the Lobéké area.
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|2.04 (1.12-3.72)
|2,365 (1,297-4,312)
|UFA 10-064_ZIC31
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|2.14 (1.25-3.70)
|2,491 (1,445-4,294)
|UFA 10-064_ZIC31
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|Between 2014 and 2015, 54 transects were covered with and effort of 147km.
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Mining on the periphery of the park destroys or disturbs the natural wildlife habitats ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2002-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Presence of sport hunting on the periphery of the park does not respect sustainable management principles ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2002-Ongoing (2018
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The illegal circulation of weapons in the TNS landscape intensifies the high poaching of elephants for ivory trade as well as gorilla andchimpanzees, although elephants remain the main target ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2002-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging on the periphery of the park, which destroy and/or disturb natural wildlife habitats ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]). The presence of human activities, such as logging, threatens the integrity of forest habitats of the Lobeke landscape ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2014-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Conservation efforts in UFA 10-064 (ZIC 31) include wildlife population surveys using transect sampling methods to estimate densities of gorillas and chimpanzees. These efforts also assess habitat use, pressures from human activities, and the impact of conservation strategies. The surveys focus on understanding species distribution and the effects of poaching and habitat degradation ([[#R01849|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|WWF Cameroon - Jengi-TNS Program, Cameroon Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (MINFOF)
|2002-Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|2014-Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|2014-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.2 Local taboos in favor of conservation
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|2014-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|2014-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.2 Strong government support
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|2014-Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Wildlife monitoring and research in the region focus on regular population assessments of gorillas and chimpanzees, including density estimation, habitat use, and the impact of human activities such as poaching and habitat degradation. Conducted by organizations like WWF Cameroon (Jengi-TNS Program), the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife (MINFOF), and international partners such as USFWS and FTNS, these studies utilize methods like transect sampling and nest surveys to estimate population sizes and spatial distribution. Additionally, human-wildlife interaction studies, led by WWF Cameroon with support from local communities, assess the effects of activities like poaching, logging, and mining on great ape populations, aiming to develop management strategies that reduce human pressures and promote coexistence. Environmental and ecological research, carried out in collaboration with academic institutions, includes biodiversity surveys, analyses of gorilla and chimpanzee nest degradation rates, and habitat mapping to enhance understanding of ecosystem health and inform species conservation efforts (Beuko et al. 2019).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Nest-Building Behavior Behavior: Both gorillas and chimpanzees construct nests for resting, primarily observed at night. These nests are built in trees (chimpanzees) or on the ground (gorillas) using branches and leaves.
|
|
|
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Feeding Behavior Behavior: Gorillas and chimpanzees forage on a variety of fruits, leaves, and other plant materials. Feeding signs, such as discarded fruit parts and broken branches, were frequently documented.
|
|
|
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Social Grouping and Interaction Behavior: Evidence of group activity, such as multiple nests in proximity and vocalizations, indicates social interactions within gorilla troops and chimpanzee communities.
|
|
|
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Territorial and Vocal Communication Behavior: Vocalizations, including hoots, screams, and chest-beating (gorillas), were documented as part of communication and territorial displays.
|
|
|
|[[#R01849|Beuko et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02332|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02332|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.1
|25.5
|25.3
|25.7
|26.8
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1523
|1557
|1562
|1594
|1568
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|20.7
|11.9
|13.5
|11.1
|13.2
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.6
|8.8
|9
|9
|9.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in UFA 10-064_ZIC31'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|12
|0.01
|13.5
|0.02
|7
|0
|27.5
|0.02
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|1
|50
|0
|0
|2.5
|50
|7
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.26
|1.5
|0.13
|1.5
|0.44
|1
|0.27
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.43
|30
|0.49
|29
|0.39
|29
|0.41
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_UFA_10-064_ZIC_31.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in UFA 10-064_ZIC31]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_UFA_10-064_ZIC_31.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in UFA 10-064_ZIC31]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01849"></span>Beukou, B., Sombambo, M., Nzooh, Z., N'Goran, K. P., Hessana, D., Sebogo, L., & Mengamenya, A. (2019). Dynamique des populations de grands et moyens mammiferes dans le segment Cameroun du paysage Tri-National dela Sangha. WWF Report and MINFOP.

<span id="R02332"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Onella Mundi''' Date:''' 2024-11-27 09:30:00

UFA 10-063 ZICGC3

2026-10-15T21:55:04Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[UFA 10-063_ZICGC3]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-063_ZICGC3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-063_ZICGC3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-063_ZICGC3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-063_ZICGC3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-063_ZICGC3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.235082, 15.614917~[[UFA 10-063_ZICGC3]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in UFA 10-063_ZICGC3 (Forest Management Unit).
* In 2018, the great ape population was estimated at 2,546 (1,626-3,985) individuals.
* The population trends are unknown.

= Site characteristics =

The site exhibits notable ecological dynamics, particularly concerning elephant populations and primate species. Over time, elephant densities have increased between 2015 and 2018. The site supports diverse wildlife, including chimpanzees, gorillas, and various duiker species. However, the distribution of elephants and other species has shifted over time, due to anthropogenic pressures such as hunting and habitat modification. The habitat consists of primary and secondary forests, swamps, and human-altered landscapes, making it a crucial area for conservation. Human activities have influenced species movement, emphasizing the need for targeted conservation efforts to mitigate habitat fragmentation and ensure sustainable wildlife populations ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|838.18 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.235082 , Lon: 15.614917
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession and community managed hunting interest zone
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|1.50 (0.92-2.43)
|1,254 (772-2,038)
|UFA 10-063_ZICGC3 (83.21 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|1.66 (1.06-2.60)
|1,387 (885-2,175)
|UFA 10-063_ZICGC3 (83.21 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|2.10 (1.39-3.21)
|2,444 (1,607-3716)
|UFA 10-063_ZICGC3 (83.21 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|3.03 (1.94-4.75)
|2,546 (1,626-3,985)
|UFA 10-063_ZICGC3 (83.21 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Mining on the periphery of the park destroys or disturbs the natural wildlife habitats ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2002-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Present (unknown severity)
|Presence of roads and railroads around the periphery zone (UFA10-063_ZICGC3) of the Lobeke NP ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Hunting is present in the area ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]). Presence of sport hunting on the periphery of the park does not respect sustainable management principles ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2002-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The presence of human activities, such as logging, threatens the integrity of forest habitats of the Lobeke landscape ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.3 Other human disturbances
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The illegal circulation of war weapons in the TNS landscape intensifies the high poaching of elephants for ivory trade as well as gorilla and chimpanzees although elephants remain the main target during this survey years. More over, traps, cartridge cases, camp sites are present pose threats to this site ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2002-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|During data collection, teams led by eco-guards assisted by military personnel consistently covered the study area. resulting in the seizure of 14 weapons (13 12-gauge & 01 AK47), 211 rounds of AKA 47 ammunition and more than 2,500 steel wire booby traps dismantled. Although the principal objectif was not to combat poaching. A significant number of seizures of poaching materials were also recorded during the reconnaissance walks carried out in 2016 in Lobeke NP and its peripheral zone (UFA10-063_ZICGC3) in 2015.
|WWF Cameroon Country Program and Lobeke National Park Conservation Office
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 Lack of biomonitoring/survey data
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2000-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.2 Lack of youth engagement
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Insecurity
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.3 Adaptive management practices
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|[[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Research activities in UFA 10-063/ZICGC 3 have focused primarily on the abundance, distribution, and habitat usage of great apes, including gorillas and chimpanzees, in the context of human impact and conservation strategies. Data collected through transects have recorded signs of human activities affecting species distribution, with notable declines in density compared to nearby protected areas like Lobeke National Park ([[#R01848|Beukou et al. 2019]]).

= Documented behaviours =

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02331|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02331|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.3
|25.7
|25.6
|26
|27
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1434
|1451
|1477
|1505
|1486
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|24.9
|19.6
|21.9
|17.4
|20.5
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.5
|7.7
|8.9
|7.9
|9.7
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in UFA 10-063_ZICGC3'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5.5
|0
|4
|0
|7.5
|0
|13.5
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|3
|50
|2.5
|100
|4
|100
|10.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|1.25
|0.41
|0.5
|0.13
|1
|0.35
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.67
|30
|0.67
|29
|0.44
|29
|0.62
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_UFA_10-063_ZICGC_3.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in UFA 10-063_ZICGC3]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_UFA_10-063_ZICGC_3.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in UFA 10-063_ZICGC3]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01848"></span>Beukou, B., Sombambo, M., Nzooh, Z., N'Goran, K. P., Hessana, D., Sebogo, L., & Mengamenya, A. (2019). Dynamique des populations de grands et moyens mammiferes dans le segment Cameroun du paysage Tri-National dela Sangha. WWF Report and MINFOP.

<span id="R02331"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Onella Mundi''' Date:''' 2024-11-25 10:07:00

UFA 10-012 ZIC30

2026-10-15T21:55:03Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[UFA 10-012_ZIC30]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-012_ZIC30?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-012_ZIC30?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-012_ZIC30?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-012_ZIC30?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-012_ZIC30?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.523267, 15.827954~[[UFA 10-012_ZIC30]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>

= Site characteristics =

UFA 10-012 / ZIC 30, part of the Tri-National de la Sangha (TNS) UNESCO World Heritage site, harbors endangered species like gorillas and elephants. Its forests are ecologically vital as carbon sinks and culturally significant to local communities. Research supports conservation strategies addressing habitat loss and hunting ([[#R01847|Beukou et al., 2019]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|745.04 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.523267 , Lon: 15.827954
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession and community managed hunting interest zone
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|1.82 (1.25-2.65)
|1,358 (933-1,977)
|UFA 10-012_ZIC30 (745 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|2.28 (1.64-3.19)
|1,703 (1,221-2,375)
|UFA 10-012_ZIC30 (745 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|2.06 (1.42-2.95)
|1,524 (1,058-2,197)
|UFA 10-012_ZIC30 (745 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|2.07 (1.41-3.03)
|1,544 (1,055-2,261)
|UFA 10-012_ZIC30 (745 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Intensified poaching due to increased access from logging activities and the spread of hunting zones in the periphery ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]). Increased sport hunting pressure in the periphery of the zone, particularly affecting large mammal populations ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging activities contribute to habitat fragmentation and increased human access, leading to more poaching and disturbances in ape habitats ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Increased conflict and poaching pressures in areas bordering the Central African Republic, particularly due to the illegal circulation of arms ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Regular patrols to reduce poaching and illegal hunting, supported by local and military teams ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|Faro Lobéké, World Wildlife Fund, Local authorities, ,
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.6 Regularly de-activate/remove ground snares
|Regular monitoring and removal of snares to prevent accidental injuries to apes and other wildlife ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|Faro Lobéké, World Wildlife Fund, Local Community Rangers
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Environmental education programs to involve local communities in the management of ape populations and ecosystems ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|World Wildlife Fund, Local authorities, Community Leaders
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.5 Demarcate and enforce boundaries of protected areas
|Marking boundaries of the ZIC to minimize illegal encroachment, ensuring sustainable use of resources ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|World Wildlife Fund, Minitry of Forestry and Wildlife
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Engage communities through eco-tourism and sustainable forest management programs, offering economic alternatives ([[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|Worldwildlife Fund, Local Authorities, International Donors
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.7 Lack of infrastructure
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Insecurity
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.2 Effective coordination
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.2 Strong government support
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Research activities are conducted in UFA 10-012 / ZIC 30, focusing on wildlife monitoring, including elephants and great apes, and assessing human pressures like hunting. These efforts, led by the WWF Jengi-TNS program in collaboration with MINFOF, utilize methods like distance sampling to guide conservation strategies, [[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]].

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Nest Building
|
|
|
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Feeding patterns
|
|
|
|[[#R01847|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02330|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02330|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.7
|26
|25.9
|26.3
|27.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1523
|1520
|1567
|1583
|1572
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|23.3
|22.3
|23.6
|18.8
|22.8
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.6
|9.9
|11.4
|10.9
|12.7
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in UFA 10-012_ZIC30'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|13
|0
|6
|0
|13
|0
|17
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|25
|-
|Heatwave
|4
|50
|3
|100
|4
|100
|10.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0.75
|0.34
|0.5
|0
|1
|0.05
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.65
|30
|0.76
|29
|0.58
|29
|0.65
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_UFA_10-012_ZIC_30.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in UFA 10-012_ZIC30]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_UFA_10-012_ZIC_30.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in UFA 10-012_ZIC30]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01847"></span>Beukou, B., Sombambo, M., Nzooh, Z., N'Goran, K. P., Hessana, D., Sebogo, L., & Mengamenya, A. (2019). Dynamique des populations de grands et moyens mammiferes dans le segment Cameroun du paysage Tri-National dela Sangha. WWF Report and MINFOP.

<span id="R02330"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Onella Mundi''' Date:''' 2024-11-30 08:36:00

UFA 10-011 ZICGC1

2026-10-15T21:55:02Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[UFA 10-011_ZICGC1]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-011_ZICGC1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-011_ZICGC1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-011_ZICGC1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-011_ZICGC1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_10-011_ZICGC1?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.394262, 15.586090~[[UFA 10-011_ZICGC1]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in UFA 10-011_ZICGC1.
* The great ape population was estimated at 1,841 individuals (95% CI: 1,196–2,834) in 2018.
* Both populations were stable between 2015 and 2018.

= Site characteristics =

UFA 10-011_ZICGC1, is part of the TNS (Tri-National de la Sangha) landscape, a UNESCO World Heritage site known for its exceptional biodiversity. It hosts a range of endangered and endemic species, including the western lowland gorilla and chimpanzee, both of which are critical species in conservation efforts. The area’s ecological importance lies in its dense tropical forests, which act as a significant carbon sink and support high levels of biodiversity. The site is rich in cultural value, with local communities relying on the forest for sustainable resources, though conservation efforts aim to reduce pressure from hunting and land encroachment. Special designations include its role as part of a larger transboundary conservation initiative, promoting cross-border cooperation between Cameroon, Congo, and the Central African Republic ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|553.09 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.394262 , Lon: 15.586090
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession and community managed hunting interest zone
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|2.05 (1.16-3.62)
|1,136 (645-2,001)
|UFA 10-011/ZICGC1 (553.09 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2018
|
|
|3.33 (2.16-5.12)
|1,841 (1,196-2,834)
|UFA 10-011/ZICGC1 (553.09 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|Results are adjusted for observed nest degradation rates and construction rates derived from other study regions.
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|1.99 (1.31-3.01)
|1,100 (726-1,666)
|UFA 10-011/ZICGC1 (553.09 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015
|
|
|2.18 (1.48-3.21)
|1,207 (820-1,776)
|UFA 10-011/ZICGC1 (553.09 km²)
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with survey specific decay time
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]], WWF Cameroon
|
|CMR0058, CMR0128<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+5 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0132, CMR0135, CMR0138, CMR0150, CMR0153</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Artisanal mining activities cause localized habitat degradation and disturbance to wildlife, including apes ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Presence of logging roads facilitates access for illegal hunters and expands human activities in the forest ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Increased poaching for bushmeat and incidental targeting of apes, exacerbated by the availability of firearms ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging activities in the concession areas lead to habitat degradation and fragmentation, increasing access for hunters ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.3 Agricultural & forestry effluents
|Present (unknown severity)
|Expansion of agricultural activities by local communities near the forest edges leads to encroachment into ape habitats ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2018
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Periodic ecological surveys, including population monitoring of great apes and other key species, to inform conservation strategies and track progress ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|WWF, TNS research teams
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|Development of income-generating micro-projects, including alternative protein sources, to reduce dependence on bushmeat and mitigate habitat destruction ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|WWF, local development agencies
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Regular patrols conducted by eco-guards and local trackers to reduce illegal hunting and poaching activities in the area ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|WWF Jengi-TNS Program
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.8 Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
|Training programs for eco-guards to improve efficiency and enhance the operational capacity of surveillance teams ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|WWF, Cameroon Ministry of Forestry
|2014-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Awareness campaigns and training sessions aimed at educating local communities on biodiversity conservation and sustainable resource use ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|WWF, local NGOs
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Engagement with local communities to promote sustainable wildlife management practices, including hunting regulation and monitoring of faunal populations ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]).
|Local authorities, WWF
|2007-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Ecological context
|5.1 Ecological constraints (e.g., susceptibility to climate change, difficult terrain)
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.2 Insecurity
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.1 Effective leadership
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.3 Adaptive management practices
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2005-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2007-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Effective legislation and law enforcement
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

The primary focus of research at the site includes ecological monitoring, biodiversity assessments, and the monitoring of key species including gorillas and chimpanzees. These activities are part of larger efforts to track population dynamics, habitat health, and threats to wildlife, such as poaching and habitat destruction.The research is primarily driven by WWF, with support from various academic and conservation partners. Field surveys, including distance sampling and habitat surveys, are regularly conducted to gather data on species density and distribution. Additionally, long-term monitoring is implemented to track the effectiveness of conservation strategies and to adapt management practices accordingly. WWF's Jengi-TNS program is heavily involved in these efforts, with collaboration from local institutions and international research teams. The research activities are crucial for informing adaptive management strategies and ensuring the effectiveness of conservation interventions ([[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]). The scientific references in the document, such as Beuko et al. (2019), highlight the ongoing efforts to monitor and assess biodiversity within the area and provide evidence for the development of more effective conservation policies.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Nut cracking, for Chimpanzees
|
|
|
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Nest building for Gorillas
|
|
|
|[[#R01846|Beukou et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02329|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02329|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.6
|26
|25.9
|26.2
|27.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1435
|1437
|1477
|1500
|1478
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|27.6
|22.6
|23.6
|18.5
|22.7
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.6
|8.3
|9.2
|8.5
|10.2
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in UFA 10-011_ZICGC1'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|13.5
|0.02
|8
|0.02
|15.5
|0.02
|21.5
|0.02
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.25
|25
|-
|Heatwave
|4.5
|100
|3.5
|100
|4.5
|100
|10
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.25
|0
|0.75
|0.02
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.84
|30
|0.79
|29
|0.66
|29
|0.65
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_UFA_10-011_ZICGC_1.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in UFA 10-011_ZICGC1]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_UFA_10-011_ZICGC_1.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in UFA 10-011_ZICGC1]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01846"></span>Beukou, B., Sombambo, M., Nzooh, Z., N'Goran, K. P., Hessana, D., Sebogo, L., & Mengamenya, A. (2019). Dynamique des populations de grands et moyens mammiferes dans le segment Cameroun du paysage Tri-National dela Sangha. WWF Report and MINFOP.

<span id="R02329"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Onella Mundi''' Date:''' 2024-11-27 14:35:00

UFA 09-024

2026-10-15T21:55:01Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[UFA 09-024]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_09-024?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_09-024?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_09-024?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_09-024?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/UFA_09-024?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.2498,10.4144~[[UFA 09-024]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in UFA 09-02.
* The population size is unknown.
* The population trend is unknown.

= Site characteristics =

'''Table 1. Basic site information for UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|747.62 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.2498 , Lon: 10.4144
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Private governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|2020
|
|0.116
|0.038 (0.018-0.082)
|28 (13-61)
|UFA 09-024
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2020
|
|0.116
|
|
|UFA 09-024
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|Density and abundance of gorillas could not be estimated due to insuffisence of gorilla nests
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2020
|
|0.064 (0.03-1.39)
|
|49 (23-104)
|UFA 09-024
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2014
|
|1.64
|0.01 (0.003-0.04)
|9.0
|UFA 09-024
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|2014
|
|1.64
|0.34 (0.22-0.54)
|257 (163-408)
|UFA 09-024
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2014
|
|0.52 (0.34-0.78)
|
|389 (257-587)
|UFA 09-024
|Line transects
|Distance sampling
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.2 Commercial & industrial areas
|Present (unknown severity)
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|2014-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|2014-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|2014-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3.2 Commercial logging
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|2014-Ongoing (2020)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01845|Beukou Choumbou et al. 2021]]
|2014-2020
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02328|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02328|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.8
|25.9
|25.8
|26.1
|27.1
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2742
|2836
|2879
|2914
|2937
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|16.7
|8.5
|8.8
|7
|12
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.8
|7.5
|7.8
|8.4
|9.4
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in UFA 09-024'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|7.5
|0
|5.5
|0
|5.5
|0
|21.5
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|8
|53.95
|7.5
|58.33
|11.5
|56.25
|18.5
|63.29
|-
|River flood
|2
|1.55
|2.5
|2.39
|1.5
|1.3
|5
|0.36
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|26.75
|0.17
|28
|0.2
|25.75
|0.15
|28
|0.22
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_UFA_09-024.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in UFA 09-024]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_UFA_09-024.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in UFA 09-024]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01845"></span>Beukou Choumbou, G. B., Nzooch Dongmo, Z. L., Sombambo, M., Njal Njock, S., Mbiapa Tchoumi, T., Ekane, H., Mounga Abana, A., Nzitouo, U., Sambou Mambala, P., & N'Goran, K. P. (2021). Dynamique de la population des grands et moyens mammifères dans le PN de Campo Maan et sa zone périphérique.WWF Report

<span id="R02328"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Tene Sop''' Date:''' 2024-11-30 14:23:00

'''Page updated by: '''Onella Mundi''' Date:''' 2025-10-10

Tonkoli Forest Reserve

2026-10-15T21:55:00Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Sierra Leone]] > [[Tonkoli Forest Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tonkoli_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tonkoli_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tonkoli_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tonkoli_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tonkoli_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.885335, -11.493043~[[Tonkoli Forest Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Tonkoli Forest Reserve.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is decreasing.
* The site has a total size of 71 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are logging, hunting and loss of habitat due to agricultural expansion.
* Conservation activities are not reported.

= Site characteristics =

The site was established as a forest reserve in 1926 ([https://www.protectedplanet.net/8515 WDPA]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|71 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.885335 , Lon: -11.493043
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Forest Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

During a national survey in 2009, interviews were conducted in 24 communities in and around the Tonkoli Reserve; 8 reported the presence of chimpanzees, and 16 communities reported having no chimpanzees in the vicinity ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Several people reported that chimpanzees were present around their community before the war. Based on interviews, they may still be present in the southeastern part of the reserve ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2009
|Present
|
|
|
|Tonkoli Forest Reserve
|Interviews
|
|[[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The main threats to chimpanzees in the site, as reported by local communities during a 2009 interview survey, include hunting, farming, logging, and civil war (1991-20020). Many people reported that chimpanzees were present before the war, but not seen now for some time. The site was used extensively by rebels during the war. Much of the forest has been damaged or lost as a consequence; chimpanzees have been largely hunted or driven out from the area. In addition, much of the forest has been cleared for agriculture ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|A large portion of the forest appears to have been cleared for crops such as rice and pepper ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting was reported as a main threat during a 2010 interview survey in the area ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging and subsequent agricultural activities have severely degraded the forest. A logging company appears to have a concession inside the reserve ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The decline in chimpanzee population was noticeable to local communities as a result of war and increased severity of related threats, such as hunting and logging ([[#R01828|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|1991-2002
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a forest reserve.
|
|1926-Ongoing (2026)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02327|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02327|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.6
|26.8
|26.6
|26.8
|28
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2263
|2210
|2281
|2278
|2344
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|34.3
|37.6
|38.5
|41.3
|42.5
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.6
|5.9
|5.9
|6.2
|7.4
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Tonkoli Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5
|0.15
|3.5
|0.15
|4.5
|0.15
|8.5
|0.35
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|8.5
|100
|7.5
|100
|9.5
|100
|8
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0.5
|1.07
|0.5
|2.08
|2
|2.6
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|2.46
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.55
|30
|0.55
|29
|0.57
|29
|0.57
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Tonkoli_FR.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Tonkoli Forest Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Tonkoli_FR.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Tonkoli Forest Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01828"></span>Brncic, T.M., Amarasekaran,B. & McKenna,A. 2010. Final Report of the Sierra Leone National Chimpanzee Census Project. Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160308223613/http://tacugama.com/census.html link]

<span id="R02327"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-11-16

Tiwai Island

2026-10-15T21:54:59Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Sierra Leone]] > [[Tiwai Island]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tiwai_Island?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tiwai_Island?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tiwai_Island?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tiwai_Island?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tiwai_Island?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|7.54, -11.35~[[Tiwai Island]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Tiwai Island.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 12 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are habitat disturbance and hunting.
* Ecotourism and research activities are the main components of the conservation work carried out at the site.

= Site characteristics =

[http://www.tiwaiisland.org/Site/ Tiwai island] is located in the Moa River, to the north of Gola Rainforest National Park’s western block. Tiwai Island was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1987 and it is managed by an administrative committee representing government, local communities, environmental organizations, and academic institutions ([[#R01816|Klop et al. 2008]]). Over 700 plant species and 170 bird species have been identified on the island ([[#R01816|Klop et al. 2008]]). The island has a remarkable concentration of primate species ([http://www.tiwaiisland.org/Site/wildlife/tiwai-biodiversity/ 11 in total]), and is also home to the endemic pygmy hippopotamus, and hundreds of bird species.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|12 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 7.54 , Lon: -11.35
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Wildlife Sanctuary)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

The site was surveyed in 2009, but abundance estimates are not publicly available ([[#R01814|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2006-2007
|Present
|
|
|
|Tiwai Island
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01816|Klop et al. 2008]]
|Only presence confirmed
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1994
|Present
|
|
|
|Tiwai Island
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01815|Fimbel 1994]]
|22 sightings of individual chimpanzees
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1988
|Present
|
|
|
|Tiwai Island
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01823|Whitesides et al. 1988]]
|sighting of one group
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Farms were routinely established until 1982, when research activities started on the island, and the number of farm plots was limited ([[#R01815|Fimbel 1994]]). Hunting intensity was also high on the island previous to the commencement of research activities ([[#R01819|Oates 1999]]; [[#R01815|Fimbel 1994]]). Research and conservation activities were disrupted during the years of civil war ([[#R01819|Oates 1999]]) but resumed in 2004.

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Farming activities largely stopped in the 1980s ([[#R01816|Klop et al. 2008]], [[#R01815|Fimbel 1994]]), but limited forest-product harvesting is permitted under current management ([[#R01820|Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Hunting on the island was banned when research activities began ([[#R01815|Fimbel 1994]]), but might still be ongoing ([[#R01817|Lincoln et al. 2016]]).
|Ongoing (2016)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Conservation and research activities came to a halt during the 10 years of civil war in Sierra Leone ([[#R01818|Lindsell et al. 2011]], [[#R01819|Oates 1999]]).
|1991-2001
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Starting as a research site in the 1980s ([[#R01819|Oates 1999]]), the island continues to rely on research and tourism as the key components of conservation efforts. Tiwai Island is Sierra Leone’s first [http://www.tiwaiisland.org/Site/ community conservation program]. Tourist facilities and a research center are present at the site.

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site was designated as wildlife sanctuary in 1987 ([[#R01820|Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary 2019]])
|
|1987-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.1 Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Research center at the site administered by Njala university, Hunter College, and the university of Miami ([[#R01820|Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary 2019]])
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Tourist facilities are present in the island ([[#R01816|Klop et al. 2008]])
|
|Ongoing (2008)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Ecological research began in the early 1980s, focusing on the behavioral ecology of olive colobus monkeys ([[#R01816|Klop et al. 2008]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Nut cracking
|
|
|
|[[#R01822|Whitesides 1985]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02326|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02326|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|26.3
|27.4
|27.4
|27.4
|28.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2309
|2259
|2334
|2306
|2333
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|36.9
|36.1
|32.4
|31
|36.6
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6
|6.5
|6.4
|6.7
|8.1
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Tiwai Island'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|0.22
|3
|0.22
|3
|0.22
|6
|0.22
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|8
|100
|8.5
|100
|10
|100
|10.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|1
|0.1
|1
|1.17
|1
|2.67
|4.5
|2.61
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|2.05
|0.5
|3.83
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.5
|30
|0.49
|29
|0.51
|29
|0.5
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Tiwai_Island.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Tiwai Island]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Tiwai_Island.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Tiwai Island]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01814"></span>Brncic TM, Amarasekaran B & McKenna A. 2010. Final Report of the Sierra Leone National Chimpanzee Census Project. Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160308223613/http://tacugama.com/census.html link]

<span id="R01815"></span>Fimbel, C. (1994). The relative use of abandoned farm clearings and old forest habitats by primates and a forest antelope at Tiwai, Sierra leone, West Africa. ''Biological Conservation'', 70(3), 277-286. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(94)90173-2 doi:10.1016/0006-3207(94)90173-2]

<span id="R01816"></span>Klop E, Lindsell JA & Siaka A. 2008. Biodiversity of Gola Forest, Sierra Leone. Unpublished Report. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, UK, and Conservation Society of Sierra Leone, Freetown, Sierra Leone. [https://web.archive.org/web/20260825215338/https://golarainforest.org/ link]

<span id="R01817"></span>Lincoln R. Larson, April L. Conway, Sonia M. Hernandez and John P. Carroll (2016) Human-wildlife Conflict, Conservation Attitudes, and a Potential Role for Citizen Science in Sierra Leone, Africa. Conservation & Society, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 205-217. [https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.191159 doi:10.4103/0972-4923.191159]

<span id="R01818"></span>Lindsell, J. A., Klop, E., & Siaka, A. M. (2011). The impact of civil war on forest wildlife in West Africa: mammals in Gola Forest, Sierra Leone. ''Oryx'', 45(1), 69-77. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605310000347 doi:10.1017/s0030605310000347]

<span id="R01819"></span>Oates JF. 1999. Myth and Reality in the Rain Forest: How Conservation Strategies Are Failing in West Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. pp. 59-90.

<span id="R01820"></span>Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary. 2019. http://www.tiwaiisland.org/Site/research/guidelines/ [https://web.archive.org/web/20220519192331/http://www.tiwaiisland.org/Site/research/guidelines/ link]

<span id="R01821"></span>Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary, official website: http://www.tiwaiisland.org/Site/research/

<span id="R01822"></span>Whitesides, G. H. (1985). Nut cracking by wild chimpanzees in Sierra Leone, West Africa. ''Primates'', 26(1), 91-94. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02389050 doi:10.1007/bf02389050]

<span id="R01823"></span>Whitesides, G. H., Oates, J. F., Green, S. M., & Kluberdanz, R. P. (1988). Estimating Primate Densities from Transects in a West African Rain Forest: A Comparison of Techniques. ''The Journal of Animal Ecology'', 57(2), 345. [https://doi.org/10.2307/4910 doi:10.2307/4910]

<span id="R02326"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-09-02

Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:58Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Sierra Leone]] > [[Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tingi_Hills_Non-hunting_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tingi_Hills_Non-hunting_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tingi_Hills_Non-hunting_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tingi_Hills_Non-hunting_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tingi_Hills_Non-hunting_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.92, -10.79~[[Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve.
* It has been estimated that 70 (CI: 22-213) individuals occur at the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 118.85 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are hunting and slash-and-burn agriculture.
* There is a lack of information on conservation interventions implemented at the site.
* The remote area is renowned for its batholiths.

= Site characteristics =

The site is located in eastern Sierra Leone, close to the border with Guinea. It is characterized by steep forested hills, which include the second highest peak in Sierra Leone, the Sankan Biriwa, at 1860 m ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]], [[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]). The site is an Important Bird Area ([http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/tingi-hills-non-hunting-forest-reserve-iba-sierra-leone IBA]); more than 200 bird species have been recorded at the site, six of which are of global conservation concern, including the white-necked picarthes ([[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]). Other species inhabiting the reserve include forest elephant (''Loxodonta cyclotis''), pygmy hippopotamus (''Choeropsis liberiensis''), sooty mangabey (''Cercocebus atys'', [[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]), and the endemic toad species ''Amietophrynus cristiglans'', commonly known as the Tingi Hills toad ([[#R01813|EPA 2017]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|118.85 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.92 , Lon: -10.79
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Forest Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Shrubland, Grassland, Savanna, Rocky areas (inland cliffs, mountain peaks), Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

In 1979-1980, Teleki and Baldwin conducted a nationwide survey and reported high densities in Tingi Hills ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Decades later, in 2010, a line transect survey was conducted in Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve, which estimated approximately 70 individuals in the area; however, a higher survey effort would be needed to reduce uncertainty in this population estimate ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|1.91
|0.59 (0.19-1.84)
|70 (22-213)
|Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|Total survey effort: 24.55 km
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Footpaths are present throughout the reserve, and hunting signs were frequently encountered during the chimpanzee survey in 2010 ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Bush fires are also a main concern, as they cause severe damage to the forest cover ([[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]). The steep terrain offers protection to chimpanzees in the interior of the reserve, but the high demand for agricultural land means that farming is slowly reaching the steeper areas ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Agricultural practices are a main threat in the reserve, causing forest clearance and erosion of the soil ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Mining is a potential long-term threat and takes places along the river in the south of the reserve ([[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Footpaths present ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting signs present in the reserve ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Bush fires occasionally cause severe damage to forest cover ([[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]).
|Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

In 2010, it was reported that seven forest guards were undergoing training for deployment in the site ([[#R01812|Brncic et al. 2010]]). However, further information on conservation activities has been reported; in fact, there may be no management plan for the area or immediate development plans ([[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site was designated a Forest Reserve in 1947 and Non-hunting Forest Reserve in 1973 ([[#R01811|BirdLife International 2019]])
|
|1947-Ongoing (2026)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

No information on research activities has been documented.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02325|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02325|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.3
|26.4
|26.3
|26.5
|27.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2213
|2158
|2227
|2216
|2284
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|35.2
|37
|37.5
|39.7
|41.8
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.7
|6.8
|6.9
|7.3
|8.7
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4.5
|0.11
|3.5
|0.11
|3.5
|0.11
|7.5
|0.11
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|8.5
|100
|7.5
|100
|10.5
|100
|9.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0.5
|1.4
|0.5
|2.07
|2
|2.19
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.43
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.56
|30
|0.57
|29
|0.58
|29
|0.59
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Tingi_Hills_-_Sankan_Biriwa.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Tingi_Hills_-_Sankan_Biriwa.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01811"></span>BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Tingi Hills Non-hunting Forest Reserve. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 19/09/2019.

<span id="R01812"></span>Brncic, T.M., Amarasekaran,B. & McKenna,A. (2010) Final Report of the Sierra Leone National Chimpanzee Census Project. Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160308223613/http://tacugama.com/census.html link]

<span id="R01813"></span>Environment Protection Agency (EPA). 2017. Sierra Leone’s Second National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2017-2026.

<span id="R02325"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-09-20

Tayna Nature Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:57Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Tayna Nature Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tayna_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-0.346968, 28.933953~[[Tayna Nature Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'', ''Gorilla beringei graueri''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (‘’Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii’’) & Grauer's gorillas (‘’Gorilla beringei graueri’’) are present in Tayna Nature Reserve.
* The population estimates are unknown.
* The great ape population trend is decreasing.
* The site has a total size of 900 km².
* Key threats to great apes include subsistence hunting, expansion of land for agriculture, wood harvesting, and artisanal mining.
* Conservation activities have focused on community engagement, gorilla rehabilitation and reintroduction, and conservation education.

= Site characteristics =

Tayna Nature Reserve is located in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, within the transition zone between lowland forests and the Congo river to the west, and the Albertine Rift to the east ([https://gracegorillas.org/2021/07/02/great-ape-survey-tayna-nature-reserve/ GRACE 2021a]). The reserve is not only important as one of the last strongholds for the critically endangered Gauer's gorilla, but it also sustains a wide species diversity, including endemic species. In addition the Grauer's gorilla and eastern chimpanzees, other species of conservation concern present at the site include owl faced monkeys, L'Hoest's monkeys, golden cats, Ruwenzori leopards, giant pangolins, forest elephants, aardvarks, red river hogs, giant forest hogs, and okapis ([[#R01810|Vwirasihikya & Matsitsi 2003]]). The reserve was identified by [[#R01808|Plumptre et al. (2016)]] as one of four priority areas for the conservation of Grauer's gorilla outside of national parks within the entire Albertine Rift.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'', ''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|-
|Area
|900 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -0.346968 , Lon: 28.933953
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Nature Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
[[File: Gorilla_and_infant_Tayna_GRACE.JPG | 400px | thumb| none | Gorilla adult with infant © GRACE]]
= Ape status =

Tayna holds one of the most important gorilla populations and represents a priority site for conservation efforts ([[#R01806|Plumptre et al. 2015a]], [[#R02323|Maldonado et al. 2012]]). Survey information has been very limited in the past due to insecurity in the region. In 2012, a survey was halted after only a few days due to unresolved conflict between the Reserve and the survey team. In 2021, the first survey to cover the entire reserve was conducted. Survey teams recorded 305 gorillas nests, 280 chimpanzee nests, and 25 signs of other animals, including 5 species of monkeys, pangolin, forest buffalo, African grey parrot, leopard, and a single Okapi footprint ([[#R01805|Fawcett & Kabuyaya Mbeke 2021]]).

The gorilla population at Tayna is also considered a priority in terms of the preservation of genetic diversity (Valk et al. 2018). Based on historical museum specimens and modern faecal samples, Grauer's gorilla populations have experienced a rapid loss of genetic diversity. This decline is attributed to the loss of peripheral populations rather than a decrease in genetic diversity in the core range of the species (Valk et al. 2018). Tayna is located at the northeastern extreme of the Grauer landscape, potentially representing a unique genetic profile.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2023
|Present
|
|
|
|Tayna Nature Reserve
|Camera trap
|
|
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2021
|Present
|
|
|
|Tayna Nature Reserve (900 km²)
|Strip transect
|
|[[#R01805|Fawcett & Kabuyaya Mbeke 2021]]
|
|COD0208
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2021
|Present
|
|
|
|Tayna Nature Reserve (900 km²)
|Strip transect
|
|[[#R01805|Fawcett & Kabuyaya Mbeke 2021]]
|
|COD0208
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2012
|
|
|
|185-210
|Tayna Nature Reserve (906 km²)
|Survey data, Line transects, Partial count
|
|[[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]]
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2011-2015
|
|
|0.289
|541 (121-2414)
|Tayna-Kisimba-Ikobo (1,869 km²)
|Line transects & recces
|
|[[#R01808|Plumptre et al. 2016]]
|
|COD0080, COD0081<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+10 more" data-collapsetext="less">COD0082, COD0084, COD0086, COD0088, COD0122, COD0144, COD0158, COD0159, COD0162, COD0226</div>
|-
|''Gorilla beringei graueri''
|2001-2002
|
|
|1.00
|450.0
|Tayna Gorilla Reserve
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01810|Vwirasihikya & Matsitsi 2003]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The socioeconomic depression arising from over a decade of civil war placed enormous pressure on the forest resources and fauna in the region ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]]). In addition, since 1996, the entire Grauer's gorilla range has been consumed in conflict, resulting in a breakdown of wildlife protection activities. Key ongoing threats at the site include agricultural expansion (Ayebare et al. 2018), subsistence hunting and wood harvesting, and mining ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]], [[#R01808|Plumptre et al. 2016]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Subsistence agriculture ([[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Artisanal mining for minerals such as cassiterite, gold and coltan ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]], Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022).
|2015-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Bushmeat hunting for subsistence (Fawcett, K., pers. comm. 2022). Furthermore, several gorillas were killed (and an infant captured) in the Tayna Nature Reserve between 2004 and 2007, as reported by Nixon, S. ([[#R01807|Plumptre et al. 2015b]]).
|2004-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Logging for local subsistence, e.g., gathering fuelwood, timber harvesting for construction (Fawcett, K., pers. comm. 2022, [[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|Present (unknown severity)
|Ebola outbreak that lasted 18 months, not directly inside the reserve, but in eastern DRC ([[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|2017-2019
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Since the late 1990s community leaders have led an effort to protect the area; in fact, the site was created from land donated by community members ([https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ GRACE]). By protecting the land, local communities aimed to prevent the loss of local forests, wildlife, and sacred cultural sites to agricultural expansion and commercial cattle ranchers ([https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ GRACE]). The site was officially declared the Tayna Nature Reserve in 2006 by the government of DRC. The reserve is managed by the community in partnership with the Gorilla Rehabilitation and Conservation Education (GRACE) center, and the ICCN.

Conservation activities at the reserve are divided into four main strategies: 1) Gorilla rehabilitation, 2) Gorilla conservation (reintroduction of rehabilitated gorillas back into the wild), 3) Conservation education, and 4) Community engagement, e.g., assisting local communities with finding sustainable solutions for co-existing with wildlife, promoting local conservation leadership and building pride ([https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#our-programs GRACE]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.13 Provide sustainable alternative livelihoods; establish fish- or domestic meat farms
|GRACE supports domestic livestock initiatives started by local women’s groups, including a guinea pig program (https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#our-programs).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Regular patrols and law enforcement activities are reported (D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|GRACE provides conservation education programs with schoolchildren and local communities ([[#R02065|GRACE]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Extensive training of local community members to lead field data collection, e.g., monitoring gorillas and other wildlife, as well as human activity signs in the reserve ([[#R02352|GRACE 2021a]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Conservation outreach through a radio program; the Tayna radio station estimates its audience is 60,000 people ([[#R02355|GRACE 2021b]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a Nature Reserve.
|
|2006-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Forest rehabilitation and protection activities are reported (D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.9 Rehabilitate injured/orphaned apes
|Sanctuary for rescued orphans and illegally captured gorillas, which are confiscated by the ICCN; GRACE cares for the rehabilitation and release outside the reserve, within the Grauer's range ([[#R02065|GRACE]]). Currently GRACE is working towards the release of gorillas in Virunga National Park to reinforce the functionally extinct population at the park (Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Jobs brought to local communities through conservation (Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022, [[#R02067|GRACE]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Many community engagement activities focus on women to support their empowerment, and because they're the primary users of natural resources. For example, GRACE is working with women’s groups to build and install more efficient stoves to significantly reduce the amount of wood needed per household. ([[#R02065|GRACE]]).In addition, local communities are supported in developing new income sources, such as selling local products and managing their own forests, and are provided with services such as health care and wellbeing (D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2022-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.5 Anticipated disadvantages/costs created by conservation activities (e.g., restricted access/resource use)
|Fawcett, K. pers. comm. 2022
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|Plumptre et al. 2015
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Sufficient capacity/expertise to advise, design, or implement actions
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|D. Caillaud & K. Fawcett. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

There is a permanent presence of monitoring teams in the Tayna Nature Reserve led by the community management authority RGT in partnership with GRACE. Damien Caillaud, Associate Professor at UC Davis is a GRACE science advisor for this work.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02324|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02324|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|20.6
|21.7
|21.4
|21.9
|23
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1443
|1427
|1476
|1383
|1502
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|9.9
|15.7
|16.9
|20.3
|13.9
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|7.1
|8.2
|9.4
|8.1
|11.9
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Tayna Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4
|0
|2
|0.06
|4
|0.15
|6.5
|0.13
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1.5
|0.02
|1.75
|1.01
|1.5
|0.23
|4.5
|0.74
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.56
|30
|0.57
|29
|0.59
|29
|0.36
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Tayna.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Tayna Nature Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Tayna.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Tayna Nature Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ GRACE website]

[https://www.facebook.com/gracegorillas GRACE Facebook]

= References =

<span id="R01805"></span>Fawcett, K., & Kabuyaya Mbeke, J. (2021). Survey of Great Apes (Gorilla beringei graueri, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Tayna Nature Reserve, Eastern DR Congo. GRACE Report.

<span id="R01806"></span>Plumptre, A.J., Ayebare, S. & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015a). Priority Areas for Conservation in the Maiko, Tayna, Kahuzi Biega Landscape. Unpublished Report for USAID and USFWS.

<span id="R01807"></span>Plumptre, A.J., Nixon, S., Critchlow, R., Vieilledent, G., Nishuli, R., Kirkby, A., Williamson, E.A., Hall, J.S. & Kujirakwinja, D. (2015b). Status of Grauer’s gorilla and chimpanzees in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo: Historical and current distribution and abundance. Unpublished report to Arcus Foundation, USAID and US Fish and Wildlife Service. [https://doi.org/10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000 doi:10.19121/2015.report.dmx3094100000]

<span id="R01808"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Nixon, S., Kujirakwinja, D. K., Vieilledent, G., Critchlow, R., Williamson, E. A., …, & Hall, J. S. (2016). Catastrophic Decline of World's Largest Primate: 80% Loss of Grauer's Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) Population Justifies Critically Endangered Status. ''PLOS ONE'', 11(10), e0162697. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0162697 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0162697]

<span id="R01809"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Ayebare, S., Kujirakwinja, D., & Segan, D. (2020). Conservation planning for Africa's Albertine Rift: conserving a biodiverse region in the face of multiple threats. ''Oryx'', 55(2), 302-310. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605319000218 doi:10.1017/s0030605319000218]

<span id="R01810"></span>Vwirasihikya, K.P. & Matsitsi, S.D. (2003). Census in the Tayna Gorilla Reserve. Gorilla Journal 26. https://www.berggorilla.org/en/journal/issues/journal-no-26/article-view/census-in-the-tayna-gorilla-reserve/ [https://www.berggorilla.org/en/journal/issues/journal-26-12003/article-view/census-in-the-tayna-gorilla-reserve/ link]

<span id="R02323"></span>Maldonado, O., Aveling, C., Cox, D., Nixon, S., Nishuli, R., Merlo, D., Pintea, L. & Williamson, E.A. (2012). Grauer’s Gorillas and Chimpanzees in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (Kahuzi-Biega, Maiko, Tayna and Itombwe Landscape): Conservation Action Plan 2012–2022. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation & Tourism, Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature & the Jane Goodall Institute. 66pp https://www.iucngreatapes.org/grauers-gorillas-and-chimpanzees [http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/pdf/Eastern_DRC_CAP.pdf link]

<span id="R02324"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02352"></span>GRACE 2021a. https://gracegorillas.org/2021/07/02/great-ape-survey-tayna-nature-reserve/

<span id="R02065"></span>GRACE. https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#our-programs [https://web.archive.org/web/20250613082637/http://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/ link]

<span id="R02355"></span>GRACE 2021b. https://gracegorillas.org/2021/02/26/gorilla-conservation-on-the-radio/

<span id="R02067"></span>GRACE. https://gracegorillas.org/grace-about-the-organization/#tab-4914187cd87ca1fa3fe

'''Page created by: '''Dr. Katie Fawcett & APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-03-23

Tanjung Puting National Park

2026-10-15T21:54:56Z

WikiEdit:

[[Asia]] > [[Indonesia]] > [[Tanjung Puting National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tanjung_Puting_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tanjung_Puting_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tanjung_Puting_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tanjung_Puting_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tanjung_Puting_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-2.984189, 111.932640~[[Tanjung Puting National Park]]~''Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii''}}</div>
* Southwest Bornean orangutans (''Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii'') are present in Tanjung Puting National Park.
* The population size is estimated to be 6,000 individuals.
* The orangutan population trend is unknown.
* The total site area is 4082.86 km².
* The main reported threats include illegal logging, forest fires, mining, and human-orangutan disease transmission.
* The main conservation activities have focused on raising awareness in the community, eco-toursim activities and restoring habitats.

= Site characteristics =

Tanjung Puting National Park lies along Borneo’s south-central coastline and spans about 4,000 square kilometers. Its landscape includes freshwater peat swamps, lowland dipterocarp forests, and heath forests. Orangutans occupy roughly 75% of the park, although between a third and half of the area has suffered environmental degradation ([[#R01803|WWF 2005]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tanjung Puting National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii''
|-
|Area
|4082.86 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -2.984189 , Lon: 111.932640
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tanjung Puting National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii''
|2004
|
|
|
|
|Tanjung Puting National Park
|
|
|[[#R01802|Singleton et al. 2004]]
|Although the park supports a substantial and viable orangutan population, recent estimates suggest that approximately 6,000 individuals still inhabit the reserve (Singleton et al. 2004).
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]
= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tanjung Puting National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal mining activities reported, details unknown ([[#R01803|WWF 2005]]).
|Ongoing (2005)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal logging has been identified as the primary threat, and addressing this issue remains highly challenging ([[#R01803|WWF 2005]]).
|Ongoing (2005)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Wildfires were also documented ([[#R01803|WWF 2005]]).
|Ongoing (2005)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|Present (unknown severity)
|The close contact between humans and orangutans at tourist locations is still a concern, as their genetic similarity increases the risk of spreading diseases between the two species ([[#R01799|Gillespie et al. 2008]]). Research at Tanjung Puting has found that ex-captive orangutans are social by nature, frequently moving in groups and initiating play with wild females and their young, as well as interacting with nests. However, these individuals have also been exposed to human-borne illnesses, with cases of respiratory and skin infections being transmitted among them ([[#R01804|Yeager 1997]]).
|1997-Ongoing (2008)
|}

[[Threats]]
= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Tanjung Puting National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Tanjung Puting National Park has held protected status since 1982 ([[#R01801|Sherman et al. 2022]]).
|
|1982-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Habitat management activities were reported to be present ([[#R01801|Sherman et al. 2022]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Visitors have the opportunity to see/visit ex-captive orangutans in three designated zones of the park—Camp Leakey, Tanjung Harapan, and Pondok Tanggui ([[#R01798|Brend 2006]]).
|
|Ongoing (2006)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|Other
|Community outreach and capacity building activities were reported, but details are unknown ([[#R01801|Sherman et al. 2022]]).
|
|Ongoing (2022)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]
= Challenges =

= Enablers =

= Research activities =

Since 1971, NGOs and research organizations have been conducting research in Tanjung Puting National Park ([[#R01801|Sherman et al. 2022]]). Research at Camp Leakey, OuTrop, and Pondok Ambung began in the 1970s–80s and continues to provide key data on orangutan demographics, nesting density, health, and behavior ([[#R01800|Rahman 2010]]).

= Documented behaviours =

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01798"></span>Brend, S. (2006). Tanjung Puting National Park: Orangutans and their habitat. The Orangutan Foundation & Yayorin.

<span id="R01799"></span>Gillespie, T. R., Nunn, C. L., & Leendertz, F. H. (2008). Integrative approaches to the study of primate infectious disease: Implications for biodiversity conservation and global health. ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology'', 137(S47), 53-69. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20949 doi:10.1002/ajpa.20949]

<span id="R01800"></span>Rahman, D. A. (2010). Habitat characteristics and preferences of orangutan nest trees (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) in Tanjung Puting National Park (Camp Leakey case study). Jurnal Primatologi Indonesia, 7(2), 37–50. [https://primata.ipb.ac.id/?p=9191 link]

<span id="R01801"></span>Sherman, J., Voigt, M., Ancrenaz, M., Wich, S. A., Qomariah, I. N., Lyman, E., …, & Meijaard, E. (2022). Orangutan killing and trade in Indonesia: Wildlife crime, enforcement, and deterrence patterns. ''Biological Conservation'', 276, 109744. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109744 doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109744]

<span id="R01802"></span>Singleton, I., Wich, S., Husson, S., Utami Atmoko, S., Leighton, M., Rosen, N., Traylor-Holzer, K., Lacy, R., & Byers, O. (2004). Orang-utan population and habitat viability assessment: Final report. IUCN/SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Apple Valley, MN.

<span id="R01803"></span>World Wide Fund for Nature. (2005). WWF’s species action plan for the conservation of orang-utans (Pongo pygmaeus and Pongo abelii) in the wild. https://wwfint.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/orangutan_sap_wwf.pdf

<span id="R01804"></span>Yeager, C. P. (1997). Orangutan Rehabilitation in Tanjung Puting National Park, Indonesia. ''Conservation Biology'', 11(3), 802-805. [https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95500.x doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95500.x]

'''Page created by: '''Aime Mizero''' Date:''' 2025-05-29

Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit

2026-10-15T21:54:55Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tala-Tala_Forest_Management_Unit?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tala-Tala_Forest_Management_Unit?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tala-Tala_Forest_Management_Unit?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tala-Tala_Forest_Management_Unit?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Tala-Tala_Forest_Management_Unit?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|1.8182, 15.178~[[Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit.
* It has been estimated that 895 chimpanzees and 4,678 gorillas inhabit the site.
* The population trends are unknown.

= Site characteristics =

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|6,167 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 1.8182 , Lon: 15.178
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
|-
|Type of governance
|Private governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|2016-2018
|
|0.48
|0.15 (0.10-0.20)
|895 (638-1,256)
|Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|Ngoran et al. (2019)
|No nest decay study was conducted. The authors used nest decay rate from neighboring sites, leading to different numbers. The estimate given here are the conservative estimate
|
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2016-2018
|
|1.18
|0.76 (0.52-1.11)
|4,678 (3,202-6,835)
|Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit
|Line transects
|Distance sampling with adopted decay time
|Ngoran et al. (2019)
|No nest decay study was conducted. The authors used nest decay rate from neighboring sites, leading to different numbers. The estimate given here are the conservative estimate
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|11 Climate change & severe weather
|11.1 Habitat shifting & alteration
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|
|Unknown
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1.1 Shifting agriculture
|Present (unknown severity)
|This area plays a vital role in conserving elephants, great apes, and numerous other wildlife species. Despite significant human pressures such as hunting, agriculture, and logging, the Tala-Tala forest remains crucial for maintaining ecological connectivity within the TRIDOM landscape (Ngoran et al. 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Although hunting signs are relatively high in the Tala-Tala forest, with an encounter rate of 0.55 signs/km, they account for only 15% of all human activity signs, which have an overall encounter rate of 3.62 signs/km (Ngoran et al. 2019).
|2015-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3.2 Commercial logging
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Apart from specific hunting and logging activities, machete cuts and trails are frequently observed. The high abundance of machete cuts and trails highlights the significant presence of human activities throughout the Tala-Tala forest. Indeed, in carrying out various activities within the UFA Tala-Tala, trails are used to access desired locations. During movements along trails or off-trail, marks are often left on trees (Ngoran et al. 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Unknown
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02322|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02322|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|23.8
|25.2
|25
|25.5
|26.5
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1573
|1621
|1613
|1652
|1618
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|18
|11.8
|13
|11.8
|12.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.6
|7.7
|8.5
|8.7
|9.3
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|12
|0.02
|8.5
|0.01
|11.5
|0
|26.5
|0.02
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|12.5
|-
|Heatwave
|3
|61.54
|2
|62.5
|2.5
|65.62
|10
|67.31
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.1
|1.75
|0.55
|2
|1.12
|2.5
|1.16
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.43
|30
|0.49
|29
|0.4
|29
|0.39
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Tala-Tala.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Tala-Tala.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Tala-Tala Forest Management Unit]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01797"></span>N'Goran, K. P., Allam, M. A., Yeno, L. S., Mahoungou, S., & Akenji, N. L. (2019). RAPPORT DE L’INVENTAIRE DES GRANDS ET MOYENS MAMMIFERES DANS L’UFA TALA-TALA. WWF & ETIC (Espace TRIDOM Interzone Congo) report.

<span id="R02322"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Tene Sop''' Date:''' 2024-11-27 10:33:00

Takamanda Biosphere Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:54Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[Takamanda Biosphere Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Takamanda_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Takamanda_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Takamanda_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Takamanda_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Takamanda_Biosphere_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|6.177757, 9.340774~[[Takamanda Biosphere Reserve]]~''Gorilla gorilla diehli'', ''Pan troglodytes ellioti''}}</div>
* Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes ellioti'') & Cross river gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla diehli'') are present in Takamanda Biosphere Reserve.
* The population sizes are unknown.
* The great ape population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 3,071.15 km².
* Key threats to great apes are poaching, logging, and increasing accessibility by roads.
* Conservation activities have focused on involving local communities in conservation and sustainable resource use, monitoring wildlife and law enforcement.

= Site characteristics =

Located in northeastern Cameroon, the site was first established as Takamanda Forest Reserve in 1934 to protect watersheds and conserve the area for timber production ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]). In 2008 it was upgraded to national park to protect the gorillas, as well as for its biological and transboundary importance ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]). The site and the neighbouring Okwangwo region in Nigeria are important areas for many large mammals; these include- in addition to the Cross River Gorilla and Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee- drills, Preuss's guenon, forest elephants, an buffalos ([[#R01796|Sunderland-Groves & Maisels 2003]]). In 2026, UNESCO designated Takamanda National Park as one of 14 new biosphere reserves across 14 countries. It is now officially designated the Takamanda-Cross River Gorilla Biosphere Reserve ([https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-designates-14-new-biosphere-reserves-world-environment-day UNESCO 2026a]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Gorilla gorilla diehli'', ''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|-
|Area
|3,071.15 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 6.177757 , Lon: 9.340774
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Biosphere Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:Takamanda Cross River Gorilla BR Cameroon WCS 1.png | 300px | thumb| none | Cross River Gorilla © UNESCO & WCS Cameroon]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Takamanda Cross River Gorilla BR Cameroon WCS 2.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | Cross River Gorilla © UNESCO & WCS Cameroon]] </li></ul></div>
= Ape status =

Gorillas are concentrated in three localities of the park. The first one consists of 25 sq.km in the east of the park, in the hills north of Kekpane. The second one covers only about 15 sq.km in an extremely steep and rocky area in the northeast of the park. The third site lies north of the Obonyi villages and extends across the Nigeria-Cameroon border into Okwangwo ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla diehli''
|2001
|
|
|
|100
|Takamanda Forest Reserve
|Informed guess
|
|[[#R01795|Sunderland-Groves, Maisels & Ekinde 2003]]
|
|CMR0103, CMR0104<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+1 more" data-collapsetext="less">CMR0105</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla diehli''
|Unknown
|
|
|
|45,881
|Takamanda National Park East (Kekpane area)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|WCS surveys as cited by [[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla diehli''
|Unknown
|
|
|
|45,945
|Takamanda National Park-North (Atolo area)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|WCS surveys as cited by [[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Bushmeat is still an important source of income and protein for villages at the site. Although traditional hunting rights were given to local communities and the use of firearms has been prohibited since 1934, firearm hunting is widespread throughout the area ([[#R01796|Sunderland-Groves & Maisels 2003]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Increasing accessibility by roads ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]). Road between the Takamanda forest and the Mone and Mbulu forests, allows access to the forests and, subsequently, increased export of agricultural and forest products, including bushmeat ([[#R01795|Sunderland-Groves, Maisels & Ekinde 2003]]).
|2003-Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Trafficking of bushmeat across the border with Nigeria and other parts of Cameroon. Gorilla meat is eaten, their bones are used in traditional medicine and as fetishes, and infants have been sold as pets ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Present (unknown severity)
|Unsustainable harvesting of NFTPs ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal logging ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Transboundary cooperation between Okwangwo and Takamanda has been strongly promoted through activities such as regular joint anti-poaching patrols, an annual transboundary workshop, exchange visits and information sharing to capture poachers ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]). The landscape is characterized by a rich cultural heritage and long-standing traditions of coexistence with the natural environment. Bantu-speaking communities, including the Anyang, Becheve, Basho, and others together with Mbororo pastoralists, continue to maintain sacred forests, observe totemic taboos, and apply customary land-use practices that have historically contributed to local conservation. Livelihood activities across the region include the sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products, such as bush mango, njangsang, and wild honey, often undertaken through women-led cooperatives. In addition, younger generations are increasingly engaged in conservation and nature-based livelihoods as gorilla guardians, ecotourism guides, and advocates for the sustainable development of their communities and environment ([https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/takamanda-cross-river-gorilla UNESCO 2026b]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|The CyberTracker system has been implemented for wildlife and law enforcement monitoring at the site. It has also been used for data collection during wildlife surveys ([[#R01794|Dunn et al. 2014]]).
|
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site has been a National Park since 2008. In 2026, UNESCO designated the site as a Biosphere Reserve ([[#R02353|UNESCO 2026a]]).
|
|2008-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|The Takamanda landscape is shaped by Bantu-speaking communities and Mbororo pastoralists who maintain traditions like sacred groves, species taboos, and community-based conservation mechanisms. In addition, youth are increasingly active as gorilla guardians, ecotourism guides, and advocates for environmental education [[#R02354|UNESCO 2026b]]).
|Local communities
|Ongoing (2026)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Women’s cooperatives sustainably harvest forest products like bush mango, njangsang, and honey, while youth are increasingly active as gorilla guardians, ecotourism guides, and advocates for protecting both nature and community well-being ([[#R02354|UNESCO 2026b]]).
|Local communities
|Ongoing (2026)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]
<div><ul> <li style="display: inline-block;">[[File: Takamanda Cross River Gorilla BR Cameroon A-Schuecke 1.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © UNESCO & A-Schuecke]]<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Takamanda Cross River Gorilla BR Cameroon A-Schuecke 3.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © UNESCO & A-Schuecke]]<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Takamanda Cross River Gorilla BR Cameroon A-Schuecke 2.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © UNESCO & A-Schuecke]]<li style="display: inline-block;"> [[File: Takamanda Cross River Gorilla BR Cameroon A-Schuecke 4.jpg | 300px | thumb| none | © UNESCO & A-Schuecke]] </ul></div>
= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.2 Local taboos in favor of conservation
|[[#R02354|UNESCO 2026b]]
|Ongoing (2026)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|[[#R02354|UNESCO 2026b]]
|Ongoing (2026)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02321|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02321|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.3
|26.4
|26.2
|26.5
|27.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2359
|2468
|2490
|2470
|2441
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|40.6
|40
|42
|40.6
|45.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|4.8
|4.7
|4.9
|4.8
|5.9
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Takamanda Biosphere Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5.5
|0.18
|6
|0.31
|3.5
|0.23
|7.5
|0.23
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|3
|100
|5
|100
|3
|100
|5
|100
|-
|River flood
|1.5
|0.17
|1
|1.87
|1.5
|1.15
|2.5
|1.23
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.74
|30
|0.74
|29
|0.74
|29
|0.74
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Takamanda.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Takamanda National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Takamanda.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Takamanda National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://cameroon.wcs.org/Wild-Places/Takamanda-Mone-Landscape.aspx WCS Takamanda-Mone Landscape]

[https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-designates-14-new-biosphere-reserves-world-environment-day UNESCO designates 14 new biosphere reserves on World Environment Day]

= References =

<span id="R01794"></span>Dunn, A., Berg, R., Byler, D., Eben-Ebai, S., Etiendem, D. N., Fotso, R., …, & Williamson, E. A. (2014). Revised Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Cross River Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla diehli) 2014–2019. New York: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group and Wildlife Conservation Society. [http://primates.squarespace.com/storage/pdf/CRG_action_plan_2014.pdf link]

<span id="R01795"></span>Sunderland-Groves, J. L., Maisels, F., & Ekinde, A. (2003). Surveys of the Cross River gorilla and chimpanzee populations in Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. Takamanda: the biodiversity of an African rainforest, 8, 129-140. [https://www.stir.ac.uk/research/hub/publication/636325 link]

<span id="R01796"></span>Sunderland-Groves, J. L., & Maisels, F. (2003). Large mammals of Takamanda Forest Reserve, Cameroon. Takamanda. The Biodiversity of an African Rainforest, 111-127.

<span id="R02321"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02353"></span>UNESCO 2026a. https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/unesco-designates-14-new-biosphere-reserves-world-environment-day

<span id="R02354"></span>UNESCO 2026b. https://www.unesco.org/en/mab/takamanda-cross-river-gorilla

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2021-11-29

Taï National Park

2026-10-15T21:54:53Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Côte d'Ivoire]] > [[Taï National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Taï_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Taï_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Taï_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Taï_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Taï_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|5.77, -7.12~[[Taï National Park]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Taï National Park.
* It has been estimated that 406 (CI: 265-623) individuals occur at the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is stable.
* This site has a total size of 5,081.2 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are poaching and diseases.
* A range of conservation activities are implemented, including permanent presence of researchers and tourists, anti-poaching patrols, environmental education and measures to prevent disease transmission to chimpanzees.
* Taï National Park is the largest remaining forest block in the Upper Guinea Region and is home to one of the longest-running chimpanzee research sites.
[[File: CIV_Tai_chimpanzee_Sonja_Metzger_WCF.jpg | 400px | thumb| none | Chimpanzees, Taï National Park (Côte d’Ivoire) © Sonja Metzger/WCF]]
= Site characteristics =

Taï National Park (IUCN category: II) was created in 1972 and proclaimed a UNESCO world heritage site in 1982 (Criteria iii, iv, [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/195 UNESCO 2019a]). The park is located in south-western Côte d'Ivoire (5°15'-6°07'N, 7°25'-7°54'W), approximately 200 km south of Man and 100 km from the coast. With a size of 5,0812 km², it is the largest protected forest block in Côte d’Ivoire and one of the last tropical lowland forests in the Upper Guinea Region. The topography is mostly flat, but some Inselbergs occur. The majority of the forest in the park has never been logged and this mature, old-growth forest supports a rich diversity of species. It has been estimated that around 1,300 plant species occur in the park, 80-150 are endemic to the Upper Guinea region ([[#R01748|BirdLife International 2019]]). Because of its diversity of bird species, notably white-breasted guinea fowl (''Agelastes meleagrides'') and large hornbill species, it is considered an Important Bird Area ([[#R01748|BirdLife International 2019]]). Primate species recorded in the park include olive colobus (''Procolobus verus''), western red colobus (''Piliocolobus badius''), king colobus (''Colobus polykomos''), and Diana monkey (''Cercopithecus diana''). Other mammal species include the Pel's flying squirrel (''Anomalurus peli''), forest elephant (''Loxodonta africana ''), pygmy hippopotamus (''Choeropsis liberiensis''), Water chevrotain (''Hyemoschus aquaticus''), African buffalo (''Syncerus caffer''), and a range of duikers, including Maxwell's duiker (''Philantomba maxwellii''), black duiker (''Cephalophus niger''), zebra duiker (''Cephalophus zebra''), and Jentink's duiker (''Cephalophus jentinki''). Reptile species include (''Crocodylus cataphractus'') and African dwarf crocodile (''Osteolaemus tetraspis''), Home's hinge-back tortoise (''Kinixys homeana'').

Taï National Park is home to one of the longest-running chimpanzee research sites. Since 1979, the behavior and ecology of chimpanzees has been studied by the [https://www.eva.mpg.de/primat/research-groups/chimpanzees/field-sites/tai-chimpanzee-project.html Taï Chimpanzee Project]. Research has also been ongoing for several decades at the [https://www.taimonkeys.org/#! Taï Monkey Project]. Taï National Park is managed by the Office Ivoirien des Parcs et Réserves (OIPR). There are two eco-tourism sites, one near the town of Taï (managed by WCF, www.ecotourismetai.com) and one near Djouroutou Ecotel Touraco (managed by a private manager, Mr. Louis DIAKITE).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|5,081.2 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 5.77 , Lon: -7.12
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Since 2005 annual surveys on western chimpanzees have been implemented by OIPR and the [https://www.wildchimps.org/index.html Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF)]. Estimated chimpanzee abundance ranges between 300-800 individuals and the population seems to be stable ([[#R01751|Campbell et al. 2008]]). Since 2016, the WCF has used camera traps to systematically monitor biodiversity in 200 km² in the Taï National Park ([[#R01752|Cappelle et al. 2019]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2008
|
|0.91
|0.10 (0.06-0.16)
|516 (314-847)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01770|N'Goran et al. 2008]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2022
|
|
|
|60.0
|Taï National Park, Djouroutou sector (25 km²)
|Informed guess
|
|[[#R01775|Soiret et al. 2015]], [[#R01765|Luncz et al. 2019]], [[#R01782|Proffitt et al. 2022]]
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2016
|
|0.265
|0.07 (0.05-0.11)
|406 (265-623)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01778|Tiédoué et al. 2016]]
|
|CIV0062, CIV0065
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2015
|
|0.57
|0.099 (0.060-0.169)
|540 (321-909)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01780|Tiédoué et al. 2015]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2014
|
|0.67
|0.044 (0.022-0.091)
|238 (116-487)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01779|Tiédoué et al. 2014]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2013
|
|0.49
|0.055 (0.032-0.093)
|294 (173-500)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01781|Tiédoué et al. 2013]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2012
|
|0.39
|0.0493 (0.0252-0.0966)
|264 (135-518)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01793|Yapi et al. 2012]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2011
|
|0.58
|0.09 (0.05-0.16)
|497 (287-868)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01773|N'Goran et al. 2011]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|0.89
|0.08 (0.05-0.14)
|441 (264-735)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R02087|N'Goran et al. 2010]]
|
|LBR0041
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2009
|
|1.22
|0.077 (0.040-0.147)
|361 (230-568)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01771|N'Goran et al. 2009a]]
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|
|0.54
|0.09 (0.06-0.14)
|479 (299-767)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01769|N'Goran et al. 2007b]]
|
|CIV0062
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2006
|
|0.54
|0.089 (0.052-0.155)
|480 (280-830)
|Taï National Park
|Line transects
|
|N'Goran et al. 2006
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Illegal poaching represents the major threat to the chimpanzee population in the park. Habitat destruction by agriculture, illegal logging and gold mining in some areas of the park also threatens the long-term existence of chimpanzees. Furthermore, long-term research by the Taï Chimpanzee Project and the Robert Koch Institute in Berlin confirmed that Ebola virus (Formenti et al., 1999), Anthrax ([[#R01763|Leendertz et al. 2004]]) and respiratory diseases of human origin ([[#R01759|Köndgen et al., 2008]]) killed a considerable number of chimpanzees.

While human population density was low in the 1970s when the park was created it has grown considerably afterwards, resulting in increasing pressure on the park, especially since the arrival of refugees from Liberia during the civil war ([[#R01748|BirdLife International 2019]]). All forest around Taï has been cleared.

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Cocoa and rice field in the eastern side of the park ([[#R01778|Tiédoué et al. 2016]]).
|Ongoing (2016)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Artisanal gold mining ([[#R01778|Tiédoué et al. 2016]], [[#R01785|UNESCO 2019b]]). The proliferation of gold panning activities in localities surrounding the park is endangering the chimpanzee community in the Djouroutou sector (Soiret pers. obs. 2022).
|2016-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Trails used by poachers ([[#R01778|Tiédoué et al. 2016]]).
|Ongoing (2016)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Poaching is widespread throughout the park ([[#R01778|Tiédoué et al. 2016]], [[#R01785|UNESCO 2019b]]).
|2016-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Several chimpanzees died due to an Ebola Virus Disease (Taï Forest Ebolavirus) outbreak in the park in 1994 ([[#R01753|Formenti et al. 1999]]).
|1994
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Anthrax is present at the site and has led to several chimpanzee deaths, first detected in 1996 ([[#R01763|Leendertz et al. 2004]], [[#R01755|Hoffmann et al. 2017]]).
|1996-Ongoing (2017)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.4 Pathogens
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Chimpanzees died of respiratory diseases of human origin ([[#R01759|Köndgen et al. 2008]]).
|Ongoing (2008)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

In the 1970's the first research station was built in Taï National Park and since then several research projects have been conducted on different species. In particular, long-term studies by the Taï Chimpanzee Project (TCP) established in 1979 and the Taï Monkey Project (TMP) established in 1989 ensured and continue to ensure the presence of researchers at the research sites, which have been shown to have a positive influence on local chimpanzee densities ([[#R01750|Campbell et al. 2011]]). Office Ivoirien des Parcs et Reserves (OIPR) does an annual bio-monitoring survey over the entire park and, in addition, the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF) also does an annual bio-monitoring survey over the research area in collaboration with the TCP. OIPR and WCF also conduct regular patrols across the entire park to control for illegal human activities. A range of environmental awareness activities have been implemented, including an eco-museum in Taï, theater plays, movie presentations, newsletters, Club P.A.N., radio shows ([[#R01786|WCF 2015]], 2018). Two Eco-tourism projects have been developed in the Taï and Djouroutou area. Finally, the Taï Chimpanzee Project is implementing a set of measures to prevent the transmission of human diseases to the chimpanzees ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.15 Certify products from agriculture, mining or logging and market them as ape friendly
|Support unions of female farmers in the commercialization and promotion of ‘zero deforestation’ agricultural products, including honey from bee-keeping, makore butter, and cacao ([[#R01788|WCF 2018]]).
|
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Anti-poaching patrols use SMART ([[#R01788|WCF 2018]]).
|
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Anti-poaching patrols conducted by OIPR and WCF ([[#R01788|WCF 2018]]).
|OIPR, Wild Chimpanzee Foundation
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.1 Wear face-masks to avoid transmission of viral and bacterial diseases to primates
|Mandatory to wear face-masks ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).
|
|2004-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.11 Implement continuous health monitoring/permanent vet on site
|Veterinary at research site since 2000 ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).
|
|2000-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.12 Detect & report dead apes and clinically determine their cause of death to avoid disease transmission
|Done by the veterinary ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).
|
|2000-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.2 Keep safety distance to habituated apes
|Minimum viewing distance of 7 m ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).
|
|1999-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.4 Implement quarantine for people arriving at, and leaving the site
|Quarantine in a separate quarantine camp ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]])
|
|2008-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.6 Ensure that researchers/tourists are up-to-date with vaccinations and healthy
|Visitors have to be vaccinated against measles, all researchers have to be up-to-date with vaccines ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).
|
|2008-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|3 Species health
|3.7 Regularly disinfect clothes, boots etc.
|‘Hygiene barrier’ implemented mandating changing clothes and disinfecting boots ([[#R01754|Grützmacher et al. 2018]]).
|
|2002-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Environmental awareness raising activities include eco-museum, community meetings, extra-curricular activities in schools Club P.A.N., radio shows, newsletters, theater plays with discussion rounds and movie presentations ([[#R01786|WCF 2015]], [[#R01788|WCF 2018]]).
|Wild Chimpanzee Foundation
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|People hired and trained by research and conservation projects ([[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]], [[#R01777|Taï Monkey Project 2019]], [[#R01788|WCF 2018]]).
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.4 Regularly play TV and radio announcements to raise ape conservation awareness
|Several sets of radio programs played regularly ([[#R01788|WCF 2018]])
|
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Theater tour, community discussions, radio, environmental days, eco-museum ([[#R01786|WCF 2015]], [[#R01788|WCF 2018]])
|Wild Chimpanzee Foundation
|2015-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Designated as National Park in 1972 ([[#R01783|UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2019]])
|
|1972-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|6 Species management
|6.1 Habituate primates to human presence to reduce stress from tourists/researchers
|Habituation process of chimpanzees in the Djouroutou area (Soiret pers. obs. 2023).
|
|Ongoing (2023)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.1 Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|3 long-term research projects: Tai Chimpanzee Project (since 1979, [[#R01749|Boesch & Boesch-Achermann 2000]], [[#R01791|Wittig 2018]]), Tai Monkey Project (since 1989, [[#R01767|McGraw et al. 2007]]) and Tai Hippo Project (since 2013, [[#R01757|IBREAM 2018]]).
|
|1979-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|2 ecotourism sites (Taï and Djouroutou, initiated in 2013, [[#R01786|WCF 2015]], [[#R01788|WCF 2018]]). The Ecoguides in the Djouroutou sector, despite their insufficient numbers, follow the chimpanzees every day (Soiret pers. obs. 2023).
|Wild Chimpanzee Foundation
|2013-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.3 Permanent presence of staff/manager
|[[#R01749|Boesch & Boesch-Achermann 2000]], [[#R01767|McGraw et al. 2007]], [[#R01791|Wittig 2018]]
|
|1979-Ongoing (2023)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Since 1979 chimpanzees have been studied in Taï National Park by the Taï Chimpanzee Project (Tai Chimpanzee Project 2019), while the Taï Monkey Project studies different monkey species since 1989 (Tai Monkey Project 2019). A wide range of topics have been studied including behavior, culture, feeding ecology, sociality, health, biomonitoring methods, and conservation interventions. Since 2013, research is also ongoing on the pygmy hippo ([[#R01757|IBREAM 2018]]). In the Djouroutou sector, MPI's Technological Primates Research Group is conducting ethological and archaeological studies on chimpanzees. This study is the first of its kind since the discovery of this group of chimpanzees. Thanks to this research, new data on the behavior of the Djouroutou chimpanzees will be uncovered (Soiret pers. obs. 2022).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Ant dipping
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant eating without tools
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Branch clasping
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Branch dragging
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Branch slapping
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Buttress beating
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Fluid dipping
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Honey eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Honey extraction with tools
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Honey extraction without tools
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Knuckle-knock
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Leaf clipping
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Leaf cushion
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Leaf sponging for drinking water
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Marrow pick
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Nut cracking
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Stone throwing
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Termite eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Termite eating without tools
|
|
|
|[[#R01764|Luncz and Boesch 2015]], [[#R01762|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01776|Taï Chimpanzee Project 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Wood pounding
|
|
|
|[[#R01790|Whiten et al. 1999]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R01760|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project ([ISIMIP www.isimip.org]). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period.

For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2°C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3°C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period. The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R01760|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [°C]
|25.7
|26.8
|26.7
|26.9
|28
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1828
|1822
|1894
|1869
|1947
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|24
|23.3
|22.7
|24.9
|24.2
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.4
|7.8
|7.5
|9.5
|10.3
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Taï National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|1.11
|2.5
|0.83
|4
|0.62
|4
|1.27
|-
|Drought
|0.5
|12.5
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.25
|12.5
|-
|Heatwave
|13.5
|77.15
|11.5
|87.19
|15.5
|85.94
|17.5
|81.94
|-
|River flood
|1.25
|1.46
|4
|3.22
|4.25
|2.57
|5.25
|4.16
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.51
|30
|0.5
|29
|0.54
|29
|0.54
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: PrecipAnomaly_Tai_NP.png | 400px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Taï National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: TempAnomaly_Tai_NP.png | 400px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Taï National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01748"></span>BirdLife International. (2019). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Parc National de Taï et Réserve de faune du N’Zo. http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/parc-national-de-ta%C3%AF-et-r%C3%A9serve-de-faune-du-nzo-iba-c%C3%B4te-divoire/text

<span id="R01749"></span>Boesch, C., & Boesch-Achermann, H. (2000). The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest. Oxford University PressOxford. [https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198505082.001.0001 doi:10.1093/oso/9780198505082.001.0001]

<span id="R01750"></span>Campbell, G., Kuehl, H., Diarrassouba, A., N'Goran, P. K., & Boesch, C. (2011). Long-term research sites as refugia for threatened and over-harvested species. ''Biology Letters'', 7(5), 723-726. [https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0155 doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0155]

<span id="R01751"></span>Campbell, G., Kuehl, H., N'Goran Kouamé, P., & Boesch, C. (2008). Alarming decline of West African chimpanzees in Côte d'Ivoire. ''Current Biology'', 18(19), R903-R904. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.08.015 doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.08.015]

<span id="R01752"></span>Cappelle, N., Després‐Einspenner, M., Howe, E. J., Boesch, C., & Kühl, H. S. (2019). Validating camera trap distance sampling for chimpanzees. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 81(3), e22962. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22962 doi:10.1002/ajp.22962]

<span id="R01753"></span>Formenty, P., Boesch, C., Wyers, M., Steiner, C., Donati, F., Dind, F., …, & Le Guenno, B. (1999). Ebola Virus Outbreak among Wild Chimpanzees Living in a Rain Forest of Cote d'Ivoire. ''The Journal of Infectious Diseases'', 179(s1), S120-S126. [https://doi.org/10.1086/514296 doi:10.1086/514296]

<span id="R01754"></span>Grützmacher, K., et al. (2018). Human quarantine: Toward reducing infectious pressure on chimpanzees at the Taï Chimpanzee Project, Côte d’Ivoire. American Journal of Primatology, 80, e22619. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22619 doi:10.1002/ajp.22619]

<span id="R01755"></span>Hoffmann, C., Zimmermann, F., Biek, R., Kuehl, H., Nowak, K., Mundry, R., …, & Leendertz, F. H. (2017). Persistent anthrax as a major driver of wildlife mortality in a tropical rainforest. ''Nature'', 548(7665), 82-86. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nature23309 doi:10.1038/nature23309]

<span id="R01756"></span>Hoppe-Dominik, B. (1991). Distribution and status of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) on the Ivory Coast. Primate Report, 31, 45–75.

<span id="R01757"></span>IBREAM. (2018). Pygmy hippo PhD 2017 summary. https://ibream.org/updates/pygmy-hippo-phd-2017-summary/

<span id="R01758"></span>Klee, S. R., Özel, M., Appel, B., Boesch, C., Ellerbrok, H., Jacob, D., …, & Nattermann, H. (2006). Characterization ofBacillus anthracis-Like Bacteria Isolated from Wild Great Apes from Côte d'Ivoire and Cameroon. ''Journal of Bacteriology'', 188(15), 5333-5344. [https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.00303-06 doi:10.1128/jb.00303-06]

<span id="R01759"></span>Köndgen, S., Kühl, H., N'Goran, P. K., Walsh, P. D., Schenk, S., Ernst, N., …, & Leendertz, F. H. (2008). Pandemic Human Viruses Cause Decline of Endangered Great Apes. ''Current Biology'', 18(4), 260-264. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.012 doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.01.012]

<span id="R01760"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R01761"></span>Kouakou, C. Y., Boesch, C., & Kuehl, H. (2009). Estimating chimpanzee population size with nest counts: validating methods in Taï National Park. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 71(6), 447-457. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20673 doi:10.1002/ajp.20673]

<span id="R01762"></span>Kühl, H. S., Boesch, C., Kulik, L., Haas, F., Arandjelovic, M., Dieguez, P., …, & Kalan, A. K. (2019). Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. ''Science'', 363(6434), 1453-1455. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4532 doi:10.1126/science.aau4532]

<span id="R01763"></span>Leendertz, F. H., Ellerbrok, H., Boesch, C., Couacy-Hymann, E., Mätz-Rensing, K., Hakenbeck, R., …, & Pauli, G. (2004). Anthrax kills wild chimpanzees in a tropical rainforest. ''Nature'', 430(6998), 451-452. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02722 doi:10.1038/nature02722]

<span id="R01764"></span>Luncz, L. V., & Boesch, C. (2015). The extent of cultural variation between adjacent chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) communities: A microecological approach. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 156, 67–75. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22628 doi:10.1002/ajpa.22628]

<span id="R01765"></span>Luncz, L. V., Mundry, R., Soiret, S., & Boesch, C. (2019). Cultural diversity of nut-cracking behaviour between two populations of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in the Côte d’Ivoire. In ''The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest'' (pp. 194-220). Cambridge University Press. [https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108674218.014 doi:10.1017/9781108674218.014]

<span id="R01766"></span>Marchesi, P., Marchesi, N., Fruth, B., & Boesch, C. (1995). Census and distribution of chimpanzees in Côte D’Ivoire. ''Primates'', 36(4), 591-607. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02382880 doi:10.1007/bf02382880]

<span id="R01767"></span>McGraw, W. S., et al. (2007). Monkeys of the Taï Forest: An African primate community. Cambridge University Press.

<span id="R01768"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Herbinger, I., Boesch, C., & Tondossama, A. (2007a). Quelques résultats de la première phase du biomonitoring au Parc National de Taï (août 2005–mars 2006) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR.

<span id="R01769"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Yapi, A. F., Herbinger, I., & Tondossama, A. (2007b). État du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase II (septembre 2006–avril 2007) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR.

<span id="R01770"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Yapi, A. F., Herbinger, I., & Tondossama, A. (2008). État du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase III (août 2007–mars 2008) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR.

<span id="R01771"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Yapi, A. F., Herbinger, I., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2009a). État du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase IV (août 2008–février 2009) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR, Abidjan.

<span id="R01772"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Yapi, A. F., Herbinger, I., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2009b). État du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase V (septembre 2009–mars 2010) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR, Abidjan.

<span id="R01773"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Yapi, A. F., Normand, E., Herbinger, I., Diarrassouba, A., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2011). État du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase VI (octobre 2010–mars 2011) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR, Abidjan.

<span id="R01774"></span>Radl, G. (2004). Le système de surveillance et le développement des densités des animaux braconnés du Parc National de Taï. Deutschen Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH. PN: 02.2279.4-001.00.

<span id="R01775"></span>Soiret, S. P., Kadjo, B., Assi, B. D., & Kouassi, K. P. (2015). New observations in nut cracking behavior of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) in Djouroutou, Taï National Park. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies, 11(1), 15–25. [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/32f89a2eb67b6f75291603153ba146118e3ad8f6 link]

<span id="R01776"></span>Taï Chimpanzee Project. (2019). Taï Chimpanzee Project. https://www.eva.mpg.de/primat/research-groups/chimpanzees/field-sites/tai-chimpanzee-project.html [https://web.archive.org/web/20210420021226/https://www.eva.mpg.de/primat/research-groups/chimpanzees/field-sites/tai-chimpanzee-project.html link]

<span id="R01777"></span>Taï Monkey Project. (2019). Taï Monkey Project. https://www.taimonkeys.org [https://web.archive.org/web/20230608042326/https://www.taimonkeys.org/ link]

<span id="R01778"></span>Tiédoué, R., Diarrassouba, A., & Tondossama, A. (2016). État de conservation du Parc National de Taï: Résultats du suivi écologique, phase 11 [Unpublished report]. Office Ivoirien des Parcs et Réserves, Direction de Zone Sud-Ouest.

<span id="R01779"></span>Tiédoué, R., Kouakou, Y. C., Normand, E., Vergnes, V., Ouattara, M., Diarrassouba, A., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2014). État de conservation du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de suivi-écologique, phase 9 (octobre 2013–avril 2014) [Unpublished report]. OIPR/WCF, Abidjan.

<span id="R01780"></span>Tiédoué, M. R., Normand, E., Diarrassouba, A., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2015). Etat de conservation du Parc National de Taï : Rapport de suivi-écologique - phase 10 (novembre 2014 - mai 2015). Soubré, Côte d’Ivoire: OIPR; WCF.

<span id="R01781"></span>Tiédoué, R., Vergnes, V., Kouakou, Y. C., Normand, E., Ouattara, M., Diarrassouba, A., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2013). État de conservation du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de suivi-écologique, phase 8 (janvier 2013–juin 2013) [Unpublished report]. OIPR/WCF, Abidjan.

<span id="R01782"></span>Tomos Proffitt, J. S., Reeves, J. S., Pacome, S., & Luncz, L. V. (2022). Identifying functional and regional differences in chimpanzee stone tool technology. Royal Society Open Science, 9, 220826. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.220826

<span id="R01783"></span>UNEP-WCMC, & IUCN. (2019). Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA). https://www.protectedplanet.net/tai-national-park-national-park [https://web.archive.org/web/20200930170440/https://www.protectedplanet.net/country/GN link]

<span id="R01784"></span>UNESCO. (2019a). Taï National Park. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/195/

<span id="R01785"></span>UNESCO. (2019b). State of Conservation: Taï National Park. https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/3920

<span id="R01786"></span>WCF. (2015). Annual report 2015: Activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa. https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html [https://web.archive.org/web/20241112052804/https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html link]

<span id="R01787"></span>WCF. (2017). Annual report 2017: Activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa. https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html

<span id="R01788"></span>WCF. (2018). Annual report 2018: Activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa. https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html [https://web.archive.org/web/20241112052804/https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html link]

<span id="R01789"></span>WCF, OIPR-PNT, WWF, CSRS, KFW, EU, UNEP, GRASP, & GTZ. (2008). État du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase III (août 2007–mars 2008) [Report].

<span id="R01790"></span>Whiten, A., Goodall, J., McGrew, W. C., Nishida, T., Reynolds, V., Sugiyama, Y., …, & Boesch, C. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. ''Nature'', 399(6737), 682-685. [https://doi.org/10.1038/21415 doi:10.1038/21415]

<span id="R01791"></span>Wittig, R. M. (2018). 40 years of research at the Taï Chimpanzee Project. ''Pan Africa News'', 25(2), 16-18. [https://doi.org/10.5134/236289 doi:10.5134/236289]

<span id="R01792"></span>Yao, C. Y. A., & Roussel, B. (2007). Forest Management, Farmers' Practices and Biodiversity Conservation in the Monogaga Protected Coastal Forest in Southwest Côte D'ivoire. ''Africa'', 77(1), 63-85. [https://doi.org/10.3366/afr.2007.77.1.63 doi:10.3366/afr.2007.77.1.63]

<span id="R01793"></span>Yapi, A. F., Vergnes, V., Normand, E., N’Goran, K. P., Diarrassouba, A., Tondossama, A., & Boesch, C. (2012). État de conservation du Parc National de Taï: Rapport de résultats de biomonitoring, phase 7 (janvier 2012–juillet 2012) [Unpublished report]. WCF/OIPR, Abidjan.

<span id="R02087"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Kouakou, C. Y., & Herbinger, I. (2010). Report on the population survey and monitoring of chimpanzee in Sapo National Park, Liberia (June–December 2009) [Report]. Wild Chimpanzee Foundation.

'''Page created by: '''Julia Riedel & Serge Soiret''' Date:''' 2023-11-08

Southern Tanganyika

2026-10-15T21:54:52Z

WikiEdit:

[[East Africa]] > [[Tanzania]] > [[Southern Tanganyika]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Tanganyika?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Tanganyika?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Tanganyika?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Tanganyika?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Tanganyika?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-7.937187, 30.970704~[[Southern Tanganyika]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Southern Tanganyika.
* It has been estimated that approximately 100 chimpanzees are found in the site.
* The population trend is unknown.
* Key threats to chimpanzees are logging, fires, and agricultural expansion.
* Conservation activities have focused on monitoring the population.
* The area holds the most southerly wild chimpanzee population in Africa.

= Site characteristics =

The site is located in western Tanzania, along the southern shores of Lake Tanganyika. The chimpanzee population in this area represents the most southerly wild chimpanzee population in Africa ([[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]]). The region contains large tracts of intact woodland characterised by Brachystegia sp. and Julbernardia spp. that provide high-quality habitat for a variety of species, including chimpanzees, savanna elephants and zebras ([[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -7.937187 , Lon: 30.970704
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Grassland
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Approximately 100 chimpanzees survive in the area, which spans from the south of Kipili to the north of Kalambo Falls, across two protected areas i.e., Lwafi Game Reserve and Loasi Forest Reserve. However, most of them are found outside protected areas ([[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|
|
|
|
|
|Southern Tanganyika
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Chimpanzees in the area are highly threatened by habitat loss. Destruction and degradation of their habitat, especially loss of riparian forest, comes from the expansion of agricultural activities and logging for timber and charcoal production ([[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Forests and grasslands are cleared for commercial agriculture ([[#R01727|WCS n.d.]], [[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging related to charcoal and timber production ([[#R01727|WCS n.d.]], [[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Uncontrolled fires ([[#R01727|WCS n.d]].).
|Unknown
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

The area is included in WCS' Southern Highlands Conservation Program, which was set up in 2000 to conserve key upland habitats and endangered species across southwest Tanzania ([[#R01727|WCS n.d.]]). Chimpanzees are the focus of research and monitoring along the southern shores of Lake Tanganyika, and the first nationwide census and assessment of their habitat has been performed ([[#R01727|WCS n.d.]]). The IUCN's "Eastern Chimpanzee Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2010–2020" and the "Tanzania Chimpanzee Conservation Action Plan 2018-2023" identified southern Tanganyka as an important target for conservation actions ([[#R01726|TAWIRI 2018]], [[#R01725|Plumptre et al. 2010]]).

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02320|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02320|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|23.6
|24.7
|24.7
|24.8
|26.3
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1092
|1134
|1152
|1114
|1150
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|144
|138.6
|136.3
|146.1
|144
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|3.5
|2.9
|2.5
|2.5
|2.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Southern Tanganyika'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|0
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0
|4
|0
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|2.75
|12.2
|2.25
|16.13
|2
|10.06
|2.75
|6.3
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|2.33
|30
|2.13
|29
|2.44
|29
|2.41
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Southern_Tanganyika.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Southern Tanganyika]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Southern_Tanganyika.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Southern Tanganyika]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://tanzania.wcs.org/Landscapes/Southern-Highlands.aspx WCS - Southern Highlands]

= References =

<span id="R01725"></span>Plumptre, A.J., Rose, R., Nangendo, G., Williamson, E.A., Didier, K., Hart, J., Mulindahabi, F., Hicks, C., Griffin, B., Ogawa, H., Nixon, S., Pintea, L., Vosper, A., McClennan, M., Amsini, F., McNeilage, A., Makana, J.R., Kanamori, M., Hernandez, A., Piel, A., Stewart, F., Moore, J., Zamma, K., Nakamura, M., Kamenya, S., Idani, G., Sakamaki, T., Yoshikawa, M., Greer, D., Tranquilli, S., Beyers, R., Furuichi, T., Hashimoto, C. and Bennett, E. (2010). Eastern Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 2010–2020. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group, Gland, Switzerland. 52pp. [http://www.primate-sg.org/PDF/ECCAP.pdf link]

<span id="R01726"></span>TAWIRI. (2018). Tanzania Chimpanzee Conservation Action Plan 2018-2023. TAWIRI Contact: info@tawiri.or.tz

<span id="R01727"></span>WCS (n.d.). Landscapes: The Southern Highlands. https://tanzania.wcs.org/Landscapes/Southern-Highlands.aspx

<span id="R02320"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2021-11-14

Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:51Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Bakundu_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Bakundu_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Bakundu_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Bakundu_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Southern_Bakundu_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|4.516667, 9.316667~[[Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes ellioti''}}</div>
* Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes ellioti'') are present in Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is decreasing.
* The site has a total size of 181 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are hunting, agricultural activities and exploitation of NTFPs.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

Located in eastern Cameroon, the Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve covers an area of 18,100 ha and is located in the Meme Division of the South West Province ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]). It is limited to the north by the Kumba-Ekondo Titi road, to the South by the CDC rubber and palm plantations, the Kumba-Buea highway to the East and the Ekombe Mbonji-Barombi Kotto road ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]). The reserve was created in 1939 to protect distinctive flora and fauna with many endemic species such as the ''Microberlinia bisulcata'' (Tiger wood), ''Lophira alata'' (Iron wood), ''Nauclea diderichii'' (Opepe), ''Gebourtia mannii'' (Boubinga), ''Milicia excelsa'' (Iroko) ([https://erudef.org/the-southern-bakundu-forest-reserve-a-farm-estate-or-protected-area/ ERuDeF]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|-
|Area
|181 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 4.516667 , Lon: 9.316667
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Forest Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Signs of chimpanzees were not found during a survey in the early 2000s ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|2004
|Absent
|
|
|
|Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]
|Survey effort 25 km
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The populations of wildlife species at the site have declined over the years as a result of the illegal exploitation of forest resources and encroachment from all sides of the reserve ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]). The absence of research, monitoring and management of the site is a great concern and has contributed to the decline of wildlife. During a survey in the early 2000s, a great number of snares, gun shells and gunshots were reported ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Plantations extending into the reserve ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Illegal exploitation of wildlife has led to the extinction of many wildlife species, particularly large mammals which are regularly hunted for food and for the bushmeat trade ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Exploitation of NTFPs ([[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|[[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01724|Eno Nku 2004]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02319|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02319|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|23.9
|25
|24.9
|25.1
|26.2
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2529
|2616
|2663
|2660
|2625
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|43.6
|28
|29.5
|25.5
|31.3
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.2
|6
|6.7
|7.2
|6.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5
|0.64
|4
|0.57
|3
|0.95
|6
|0.81
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0.5
|50
|1.5
|100
|3.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|2.25
|0.51
|0.5
|0.03
|1.75
|1.76
|4
|1.47
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.41
|30
|0.42
|29
|0.41
|29
|0.44
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_South_Bakundu_FR.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_South_Bakundu_FR.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Southern Bakundu Forest Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2011-123-En.pdf IUCN Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of the Nigeria-Cameroon Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti)]

= References =

<span id="R01724"></span>Eno Nku, M. (2004). Large mammal recoinnassance surveys of Lake Barombi Mbo and Southern Banduku Forests Reserves, SW Province. Report to Wildlife Conservation Society & MINEF.

<span id="R02319"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-02-28

Souanké-Sembe Landscape

2026-10-15T21:54:50Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Republic of the Congo]] > [[Souanké-Sembe Landscape]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Souanké-Sembe_Landscape?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Souanké-Sembe_Landscape?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Souanké-Sembe_Landscape?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Souanké-Sembe_Landscape?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Souanké-Sembe_Landscape?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|1.969855, 13.936844~[[Souanké-Sembe Landscape]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & Western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in Souanké-Sembe Landscape.
* The population sizes are unknown.
* The great ape population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 14,535 km².
* Key threats to great apes are logging, roads, mining, construction of a hydroelectric dam, and poaching.
* Conservation activities have focused on anti-poaching patrols and roadblocks.

= Site characteristics =

The Souanké-Sembe landscape is located in northwestern Congo, bordering Gabon to the west and Cameroon to the north. The landscape covers about 14,535 km², and includes the proposed protected area of Messok Dja (1,400 km²) and the 9,000 km² Djoua Ivindo Forest ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]). The landscape has been identified as an important area for the conservation of chimpanzees and western lowland gorillas since the early 2000s. The area is characterized by a mix of swamp and terra firma forest with large stands of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, and includes Congo’s highest mountain, Mont Nabemba, at 1,020 m asl. The site forms an important link between [[Nki National Park]] in Cameroon, [[Minkébé National Park]] in Gabon and [[Odzala-Kokoua National Park]] in Congo ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|14,535 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 1.969855 , Lon: 13.936844
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|
|
|
|
|
|Souanké-Sembe Landscape
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The Jua Ikié FMU (5,740 km²) and Tala Tala FMU (6,211 km²) were allocated to a Chinese company, SEFYD, and a Lebanese company, SIFCO, respectively ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]). Both concessions overlap with the proposed Messok Dja protected area. In 2014, the Ministry of Forest Economy and Sustainable Development (MEFDD) created the Karagoua FMU (6,533 km²), that borders Minkébé NP and overlaps with the Djoua Ivindo Forest; possible attribution of this remote forest to a logging company poses a new threat ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]). Three large iron-ore mining projects are planned in Djoua Ivindo. Other pressures on wildlife come from artisanal gold mining, and the proposed 600-MW Chollet hydroelectric dam on the Dja River (which would impact great apes in Nki and Messok Dja). Tarmacking of the Ouesso-Sembe-Souanké-Ntam road is facilitating access to the region, resulting in a booming bushmeat trade, linked to the markets of Ouesso and Brazzaville ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Artisanal gold mining ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Tarmacking of a road that provides access to previously isolated areas ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Improved access to the forest leading to higher bushmeat offtake ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging concessions ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.2 Dams & water management/use
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Development of the Chollet hydroelectric dam on the Dja River will affect great apes in Nki and Messok Dja ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.1 Implement road blocks to inspect cars for illegal ape bushmeat
|Development and implementation of wildlife management plans by logging companies, including support for additional ecoguard units and roadblocks ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Joint patrols are conducted with Cameroon (Messok Dja-Nki border) and Gabon (Minkébé border, Djoua River); establishment of ecoguard units in collaboration with mining companies in Djoua Ivindo ([[#R01723|IUCN 2014]]).
|
|Ongoing (2014)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02318|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02318|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.1
|25.5
|25.2
|25.7
|26.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2436
|2466
|2458
|2477
|2463
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|15.8
|8.8
|10.2
|9.8
|10.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|7.1
|7.3
|7.4
|7.7
|8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Souanké-Sembe Landscape'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|13
|0.11
|8.5
|0.12
|14
|0.04
|26
|0.14
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|5
|100
|5.5
|100
|4.5
|100
|9.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.02
|1.5
|0.42
|1.5
|3.86
|1.5
|1.8
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|29
|0.23
|29.25
|0.26
|28.5
|0.28
|29
|0.24
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Souanké-Sembe_Landscape.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Souanké-Sembe Landscape]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Souanké-Sembe_Landscape.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Souanké-Sembe Landscape]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01723"></span>IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature (2014). Regional Action Plan for the Conservation of Western Lowland Gorillas and Central Chimpanzees 2015–2025. International Union for Conservation of Nature. [https://doi.org/10.2305/iucn.ch.2005.ssc-rap.1.en doi:10.2305/iucn.ch.2005.ssc-rap.1.en]

<span id="R02318"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-01-10

Sobeya

2026-10-15T21:54:49Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Republic of Guinea]] > [[Sobeya]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sobeya?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sobeya?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sobeya?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sobeya?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sobeya?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|10.26, -11.71~[[Sobeya]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Sobeya.
* A population size estimate for western chimpanzees has not been reported.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 96 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are agriculture and livestock farming.
* Conservation activities were not reported.
* Sobeya was a temporary research site of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee (PanAf).

= Site characteristics =

Sobeya is a temporary research site of the Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee ([http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/ PanAf]) close to the village Sobeya in Guinea. More specifically this site located in the southern part of the Fouta Djallon. Research was conducted for 12 months in 2012 and 2013. The area is characterized by savanna and gallery forests. Species encountered include the Guinea baboon (''Papio papio'').

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|96 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 10.26 , Lon: -11.71
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Savanna, Shrubland, Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

As part of the PanAf data collection protocol recce and line transect surveys were conducted in 2012 and 2013. However, chimpanzee density or abundance was not analyzed/not published ([[#R01714|PanAf 2019]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2012-2013
|Present
|
|
|
|Sobeya
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01714|PanAf 2019]]
|Abundance estimate was not published
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The area is used by farmers and herders from nearby villages. There was a breeder settlement within the study area and the village Sobeya. Cows were frequently captured on camera traps (unpublished PanAf report).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Present (unknown severity)
|Village Sobeya, breeder settlement (unpublished PanAf report from 2013).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Present (unknown severity)
|Plantations encountered on transects (unpublished PanAf report from 2013)
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Present (unknown severity)
|Cows captured on camera traps(unpublished PanAf report from 2013).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Presence of fire reported (unpublished PanAf report from 2013).
|Ongoing (2013)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Conservation interventions were not reported for Sobeya.

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Data collected by the PanAf at Sobeya was used to for studies on chimpanzee behavior ([[#R01711|Kühl et al. 2016]], [[#R01712|Kühl et al. 2019]], [[#R01715|Tagg et al. 2018]]) and diseases in apes ([[#R01713|Murthy et al. 2019]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Algae fishing
|
|
|
|[[#R01711|Kühl et al. 2016]], [[#R01712|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01711|Kühl et al. 2016]], [[#R01712|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Stone throwing
|
|
|
|[[#R01711|Kühl et al. 2016]], [[#R01712|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Termite fishing
|
|
|
|[[#R01711|Kühl et al. 2016]], [[#R01712|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02317|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02317|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.6
|26.8
|26.6
|26.9
|28.1
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1592
|1575
|1606
|1628
|1612
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|67.2
|60.2
|62
|66.8
|65.3
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|4.2
|5.3
|5.4
|5.4
|5.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Sobeya'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|8.5
|2.06
|5.5
|2.06
|11.5
|2.06
|13
|2.06
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|1
|50
|0
|0
|1
|50
|3
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.09
|0.5
|1.03
|0.25
|0.05
|1
|0.04
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.92
|30
|0.85
|29
|0.8
|29
|1.01
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Sobeya.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Sobeya]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Sobeya.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Sobeya]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01711"></span>Kühl, H. S., Kalan, A. K., Arandjelovic, M., Aubert, F., D’Auvergne, L., Goedmakers, A., …, & Boesch, C. (2016). Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing. ''Scientific Reports'', 6(1). [https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22219 doi:10.1038/srep22219]

<span id="R01712"></span>Kühl, H. S., Boesch, C., Kulik, L., Haas, F., Arandjelovic, M., Dieguez, P., …, & Kalan, A. K. (2019). Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. ''Science'', 363(6434), 1453-1455. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4532 doi:10.1126/science.aau4532]

<span id="R01713"></span>Murthy, S., O’Brien, K., Agbor, A., Angedakin, S., Arandjelovic, M., Ayimisin, E. A., …, & Calvignac-Spencer, S. (2019). Cytomegalovirus distribution and evolution in hominines. ''Virus Evolution'', 5(2). [https://doi.org/10.1093/ve/vez015 doi:10.1093/ve/vez015]

<span id="R01714"></span>PanAf. 2019. Pan African Programme: The Cultured Chimpanzee. Online: [http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/ panafrican.eva.mpg.de]

<span id="R01715"></span>Tagg, N., McCarthy, M., Dieguez, P., Bocksberger, G., Willie, J., Mundry, R., …, & Boesch, C. (2018). Nocturnal activity in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Evidence for flexible sleeping patterns and insights into human evolution. ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology'', 166(3), 510-529. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23478 doi:10.1002/ajpa.23478]

<span id="R02317"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-10-14

SINFOCAM concessions

2026-10-15T21:54:48Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Central African Republic]] > [[SINFOCAM concessions]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/SINFOCAM_concessions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/SINFOCAM_concessions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/SINFOCAM_concessions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/SINFOCAM_concessions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/SINFOCAM_concessions?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.786886, 16.247316~[[SINFOCAM concessions]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') and western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in SINFOCAM concessions.
* It has been estimated that 535 (CI: 287-999) individuals occur in the site.
* The great ape population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 2,346.46 km².
* Key threats to great apes are logging and poaching.
* Conservation activities have focused on anti-poaching patrols.

= Site characteristics =

The SINFOCAM concessions are logging concessions located in the southwestern corner of the Central African Republic (CAR). The concessions are found within the Dzanga-Sangha Protected Area (DSPA). The DSPA is known for its remarkable biodiversity and is the largest intact forest block remaining in the country ([[#R01708|WWF n.d]].). DSPA is part of the Sangha Tri-National World Heritage Site. SINFOCAM, a subsidiary of Vicwood Group, obtained a logging permit in 2014 (Global [[#R01707|Witness 2015]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|2,346.46 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.786886 , Lon: 16.247316
|-
|Type of site
|Logging concession
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Savanna
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''
|2015-2016
|
|
|0.03 (0.01-0.08)
|82 (33-203)
|SINFOCAM concessions
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01706|N'Goran, Ndomba & Beukou 2016]]
|
|CAF0012, CAF0016<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+7 more" data-collapsetext="less">CAF0020, CAF0025, CAF0028, CAF0030, CAF0033, CAF0034, CAF0037</div>
|-
|''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015-2016
|
|
|0.21 (0.11-0.40)
|502 (260-970)
|SINFOCAM concessions
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01706|N'Goran, Ndomba & Beukou 2016]]
|
|CAF0012, CAF0016<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+7 more" data-collapsetext="less">CAF0020, CAF0025, CAF0028, CAF0030, CAF0033, CAF0034, CAF0037</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2015-2016
|
|
|0.22 (0.12-0.41)
|535 (287-999)
|SINFOCAM concessions
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01706|N'Goran, Ndomba & Beukou 2016]]
|
|CAF0012, CAF0016<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+7 more" data-collapsetext="less">CAF0020, CAF0025, CAF0028, CAF0030, CAF0033, CAF0034, CAF0037</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Exploitation of the SINFOCAM logging concessions was predicted to have negative impacts on the remaining wildlife populations, and contributing to increased human pressures in the nearby protected areas ([[#R01706|N'Goran, Ndomba & Beukou 2016]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Present (unknown severity)
|Artisanal mining ([[#R01708|WWF n.d]].).
|Unknown
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Poaching (subsistence and commercial; [[#R01708|WWF n.d.]], Global [[#R01707|Witness 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Industrial scale logging is a threat, as logging roads accelerate deforestation and facilitate access to poachers (Global [[#R01707|Witness 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

WWF played an important role in the gazetting of the DSPA, where the site is located. WWF works alongside the CAR government to conserve this area, which is of exceptional regional and international importance ([[#R01708|WWF n.d]].)

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Anti-poaching patrols ([[#R01708|WWF n.d]].).
|
|Unknown
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02316|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02316|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.1
|25.3
|25.3
|25.7
|26.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1549
|1542
|1599
|1618
|1594
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|25.5
|25.9
|25.2
|23.4
|28.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.6
|10.5
|11.6
|12.3
|12.3
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in SINFOCAM concessions'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|5.5
|0.21
|4
|0.19
|5.5
|0.24
|11.5
|0.19
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|1.5
|35
|1
|62.5
|2
|66.67
|5
|83.33
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|1.5
|0.33
|0.5
|0.01
|1
|1.24
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.95
|30
|0.93
|29
|0.89
|29
|0.96
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_SINFOCAM1_concession_-_DSPA.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in SINFOCAM concessions]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_SINFOCAM1_concession_-_DSPA.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in SINFOCAM concessions]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01706"></span>N’Goran K.P., Ndomba D.L. and Beukou G.B. (2016). Rapport de l’inventaire des grands et moyens mamifères dans le segment RCA du paysage trinational de la Sangha. Bayanga, Central African Republic: WWF. Unpublished Report.

<span id="R01707"></span>Witness, G. (2015). Blood timber: how Europe helped fund war in the Central African Republic: a report.

<span id="R01708"></span>WWF (n.d.).WWF in the Dzanga - Sangha Protected Area (DSPA). Online: https://www.wwf-congobasin.org/where_we_work/central_africa_republic/dzanga_sangha_protected_area/ [https://web.archive.org/web/20220517102441/https://www.wwf-congobasin.org/where_we_work/central_africa_republic/dzanga_sangha_protected_area/ link]

<span id="R02316"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2021-12-18

Semuliki National Park

2026-10-15T21:54:47Z

WikiEdit:

[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Semuliki National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Semuliki_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Semuliki_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Semuliki_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Semuliki_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Semuliki_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|0.828178, 30.034272~[[Semuliki National Park]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Semuliki National Park.
* It has been estimated that 50 (CI: 43-57) individuals occur in the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 220 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are habitat encroachment, poaching, and illegal harvest of forest products.
* Conservation activities are not reported.

= Site characteristics =

Semuliki National Park is located in western Uganda, in the Albertine Rift valley, bordering the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) and Virunga National Park. The Lamia and Semliki rivers bound the park to the west and north, and part of its southern boundary is formed by the Fort Portal-Bundibugyo road ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]]). The park is almost entirely covered by forest, which is dominated by the tree species ''Cynometra alexandrii''. As the site is cut off from the rest of East Africa by the Rwenzori massif, the forest is an easterly extension of the Ituri forest in northeastern DRC, and its flora and fauna show similarities with the forest in the Congo Basin ([[#R01692|Sever 2021]]). The park was gazetted as Semliki Forest Reserve in 1932 and as National Park in 1993. The site is very rich in bird diversity and has been an Important Bird Area since 2001 ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]]). The park fauna is very rich and includes eight species of primates, 51 species of forest swallowtail and Charaxes butterflies ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|220 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 0.828178 , Lon: 30.034272
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2001
|
|
|0.21
|50.15 (43-57)
|Semuliki National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01690|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003]]
|Standing crop nest counts. Abundance is the number of nest building chimps.
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Main threats to chimpanzees include agricultural encroachment, poaching, and illegal harvest of forest products. The growing human population density in the county where the park is located (Bwamba) poses a big problem, as it is linked to a growing demand for agricultural land ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]]). In the 1970s and early 1980s approximately 30% of the original forest cover was cleared for agriculture and settlement (BirdLife International 2020). The encroachers were evicted in 1988 and 1990, allowing the forest to slowly regenerate ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Present (unknown severity)
|Encroachment due to demand for agricultural land ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]], [[#R01690|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003]]).
|2003-Ongoing (2021)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Present (unknown severity)
|Roads ([[#R01690|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003]]).
|Ongoing (2003)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal harvest of forest products, including medicinal plants, bush ropes, poles, and rattan ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]], [[#R01690|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003]]).
|Ongoing (2003)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Hunting traps ([[#R01689|BirdLife International 2021]], [[#R01690|Plumptre, Cox & Mugume 2003]]).
|Ongoing (2003)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is designated as a national park.
|
|1990-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Chimpanzee trekking and other activities are offered at the site since early 2000s ([[#R02062|AfricaSky]]).
|
|2000-Ongoing (2021)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

A study that produced a historical base-line model of chimpanzee metapopulation dynamics in eastern DRC and northwestern Uganda found that chimpanzees in Semuliki National Park are genetically closer to the populations in Toro-Semliki Wildlife Reserve and Itwara Forest Reserve than to the population in Rwenzori National Park ([[#R01691|Rich et al. 2020]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02315|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02315|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|22
|23.1
|23.2
|23.4
|24.5
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1345
|1387
|1479
|1300
|1575
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|12.3
|19.7
|23.6
|22.5
|21.3
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.8
|10.1
|9.7
|10.5
|16
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Semuliki National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|2.5
|0.04
|0
|0
|2.5
|0.34
|1.5
|0.02
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1.75
|0.05
|4
|1.37
|1
|0.01
|5.75
|0.95
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|1.03
|30
|1.01
|29
|0.98
|29
|0.79
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Semuliki.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Semuliki National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Semuliki.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Semuliki National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01689"></span>BirdLife International. (2021). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Semliki National Park. Retrieved October 25, 2021, from http://www.birdlife.org

<span id="R01690"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Cox, D., & Mugume, S. (2003). The status of chimpanzees in Uganda. Albertine Rift Technical Report Series No. 2. Wildlife Conservation Society. [http://programs.wcs.org/portals/49/media/file/AR_Tech_Rpt_2_Uganda_Chimps.PDF link]

<span id="R01691"></span>Rich, A. M., Wasserman, M. D., Hunt, K. D., & Kaestle, F. A. (2020). Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) Population Spans Multiple Protected Areas in the Albertine Rift. ''Folia Primatologica'', 91(6), 595-609. [https://doi.org/10.1159/000508073 doi:10.1159/000508073]

<span id="R01692"></span>Sever, Z. (2021). Searching for the okapi (Okapia johnstoni) in Semuliki National Park, Uganda. African Journal of Ecology, 59(1), 286–292. [https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12796 doi:10.1111/aje.12796]

<span id="R02315"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02062"></span>AfricaSky. https://www.africaskysafari.com/semuliki-national-park

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2021-10-29

Sapo National Park

2026-10-15T21:54:46Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Liberia]] > [[Sapo National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sapo_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sapo_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sapo_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sapo_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sapo_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|5.378432, -8.496117~[[Sapo National Park]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Sapo National Park.
* It has been estimated that 1,055 (CI: 595-1,870) individuals occur in the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is stable.
* The park has a total size of 1,804 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are poaching, human wildlife conflict and illegal mining.
* Conservation activities have focused on long-term bio-monitoring and law enforcement, involving and supporting local communities, together with education and awareness raising.
* Sapo National Park is Liberia's first protected area, established in 1983.

= Site characteristics =

Located in southeastern Liberia, Sapo National Park is Liberia's first protected area and represents one of the most intact forest ecosystems of the country ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]). The area of the park was extended from 1,304 km² to 1,804 km² in 2003 ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]). The park forms part of the Upper Guinean Forest ecosystem, and contains high levels of biodiversity ([[#R01657|N'Goran et al. 2010]]). The park is a low elevation tropical humid rainforest. Elevation in the southeastern area is approximately 100m with gently rolling hills while in the north, the elevation is approximately 400m in the north with steep ridges ([[#R01658|Peal & Kranz 1990]]). In addition to the western chimpanzee, other endangered and vulnerable species inhabit the site, including forest elephants (''Loxodonta africana''), pygmy hippopotamus (''Hexaprotodon liberiensis''), Jentink’s duiker (''Cephalophus jentinki''), red colobus (''Piliocolobus badius''), and Diana monkeys (''Cercopithecus diana diana'', N'Goran 2010).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|1,804 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 5.378432 , Lon: -8.496117
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

A survey in 1982 (one year before the establishment of the park), confirmed the presence of chimpanzees in the Sapo forest ([[#R01654|Anderson et al. 1983]]). Based on the estimates from two surveys, one in 2009 ([[#R01657|N'Goran et al. 2010]]) and a second one in 2017 ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]), the chimpanzee population in the park has remained relatively stable, with an estimated abundance of approximately 1,055 individuals.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2016-2017
|
|
|0.83
|1,055 (595-1,870)
|Sapo National Park, excluding south east area
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]
|Total survey effort: 38.38 km
|LBR0043
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2009
|
|4.05
|0.86
|1,079 (713-1,633)
|Sapo National Park, excluding mining areas
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01657|N'Goran et al. 2010]]
|
|LBR0041
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007-2009
|
|0.27
|
|
|Sapo National Park, excluding south east area
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01660|Vogt 2011]]
|Fauna & Flora International bio-monitoring programme
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2002
|Present
|
|
|
|Sapo National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01661|Waitkuwait 2003]]
|Assessment of Fauna & Flora International's bio-monitoring programme
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1983
|Present
|
|0.24
|
|Southeastern sector of the park (50 km²)
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01654|Anderson et al. 1983]]
|Total survey effort: 42.7 km
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Sapo National Park has been primarily threatened by illegal hunting and mining ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]; [[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]; [[#R01657|N'Goran et al. 2010]]). An estimated 18,000 illegal miners were inhabiting the park in 2010, the majority of which was evicted by the government on the same year ([[#R01660|Vogt 2011]]). A survey of two commercial hunting camps bordering the park revealed high hunting pressure in the area, and the majority of bushmeat harvested was destined to urban areas ([[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]). The carcasses documented during this survey included chimpanzees as well as other endangered and vulnerable species, such as the red colobus monkey, Diana monkey, and pygmy hippopotamus. Furthermore, the development of the road network around the park is expected to increase hunting pressure and facilitate the bushmeat trade ([[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]), as well as other illegal activities in the park.

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Illegal settlement of miners ([[#R01660|Vogt 2011]]).
|2010
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Present (unknown severity)
|Present as a result of illegal settlements; scale unknown ([[#R01657|N’Goran et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2.3 Artisanal mining
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illicit gold mining which has decreased since 2010 ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]); artisanal mining is still present (Junket per. comm. 2019).
|2010-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Present (unknown severity)
|Development of the road network around the park facilitates illegal human activities in the park ([[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Poaching represents a major threat to chimpanzees and other species in the park ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]], [[#R01657|N’Goran et al. 2010]], [[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]), and most of the bushmeat is destined to urban areas ([[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.5 Persecution/human wildlife conflict
|Present (unknown severity)
|Human great ape conflict has been reported in areas where great apes raid crops (Tally B. pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Two civil wars since the establishment of the park disrupted conservation activities, and led to illegal occupation of the park, as well as poaching and extraction of natural resources ([[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]], [[#R01655|Collen et al. 2011]]).
|1989-1996, 1999-2003
|}

[[Threats]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: IllegalMining_Sapo_BTally.jpg | 200px | thumb| none | Illegal mining activity in Sapo © Ben Tally]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: MiningCamp_Sapo_BTally.jpg | 200px | thumb| none | Mining camp © Ben Tally]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: IllegalMining_BTally.jpg | 200px | thumb| none |Illegal mining © Ben Tally]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Patrol_SMART.jpg | 200px | thumb| none |Illegal mining © Ben Tally]] </li></ul></div>
= Conservation activities =

The Forestry Development Authority of Liberia is responsible for the sustainable management of the forest sector and the protection of all natural resources. It runs the Sapo National Park in collaboration with Fauna & Flora International (FFI) and Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF). Main activities at the national park level include anti-poaching, conservation education awareness, and bio-monitoring & scientific research. As of 2019, the main activities in the research area have been camera trappings (2019,2020, 2021) by FFI and FDA in the entire national park. eDNA (focusing on Pygmy hippopotamus) was conducted in 2022. The national park forms part of the Tai-Grebo-Sapo Forest Complex, which is a conservation priority in West Africa. Conservation efforts in Sapo National Park have mainly focused on law enforcement, conservation awareness, and bio-monitoring. The WCF has supported Community Watch Teams (CWT), which comprise members from surrounding communities, and regularly patrol and support FDA rangers ([[#R01662|WCF 2019]]). CWTs have played an important role in the eviction of illegal miners from the national park ([[#R01662|WCF 2019]]). In 2012, Fauna & Flora International established a long-term bio-monitoring program to follow the population trends for chimpanzees, pygmy hippopotamuses, elephants, as well as duikers, birds, reptiles, and amphibians ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]). Together with Liberia's Forestry Development Authority, permanent transects are surveyed twice a year as part of this long-term bio-monitoring program ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.11 Implement monitoring surveillance strategies (e.g., SMART) or use monitoring data to improve effectiveness of patrols
|Long-term bio-monitoring of chimpanzee population ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]])
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Community Watch Teams supported by the WCF regularly patrol the site ([[#R01662|WCF 2019]])
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.8 Provide training to anti-poaching ranger patrols
|Members of the Community Watch Teams are trained in the use of equipment (GPS, compass, camera) and patrolling ([[#R01662|WCF 2019]])
|
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Awareness and educational activities about great apes are conducted (Tally B. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|As part of a long-term bio-monitoring program, staff of Liberia’s Forestry Development Authority and members of the local community are involved in the surveys ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]). In addition, local people are consulted on conservation activities, employed to work at the park, supported in their livelihood efforts, and provided with basic knowledge on protecting and conserving great apes and preventing pollution (Tally B. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|2018-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The area is designated as National Park.
|
|1983-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Forest rehabilitation and protection activities reported (Tally B. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.9 Resettle illegal human communities (i.e., in a protected area) to another location
|Eviction of 18,000 illegal settlers in the park by the Liberia's government ([[#R01660|Vogt 2011]])
|
|2010
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Local community members are hired to work on conservation projects (Tally B. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|Local people are provided with general education and life skills, as well as supporting the community to manage their own forests, ecotourism and develop other new income sources like selling local products (Tally B. pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

The influx of local community dwellers inside the national park is hampering the SNP management to implement the protection of chimpanzees. Low manpower for conducting anti-poaching patrols in and outside the park has put chimpanzees under serious threat.

Very high illiteracy among the rangers thus making it difficult to collect data, process court procedures, and conduct conservation education awareness to local community people.

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.2 Need for improved coordination
|[[#R01661|Waitkuwait 2003]]
|
|-
|1 Site management
|1.4 Conflict on land tenure
|Tally, B. pers. comm. 2022
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|Tally B. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.2 Lack of staff
|Tally B. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|Tally B. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.4 Lack of continuous/long-term funding
|Tally B. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|[[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]], [[#R01657|N'Goran et al. 2010]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.6 External partnerships that add expertise or resources
|Tally B. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|Tally B. pers. comm. 2025
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Several surveys have been done in the park to monitor the chimpanzee population (e.g., [[#R01657|N'Goran et al. 2010]], [[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]), assess the impacts of conservation interventions ([[#R01659|Tweh et al. 2018]]), investigate the behavior and ecology of chimpanzees in the park ([[#R01654|Anderson et al. 1983]]), and investigate the impact of hunting pressure in the area ([[#R01656|Greengrass 2015]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Nut cracking
|
|
|
|[[#R01654|Anderson et al. 1983]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02313|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02313|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.9
|26.9
|26.8
|26.9
|28
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2893
|2882
|3001
|2921
|2958
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|17.5
|21
|16.9
|20.4
|19.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.9
|12.5
|14.3
|14.1
|15.6
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Sapo National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|2
|0.04
|1
|0.04
|1
|0.04
|6
|0.04
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|13
|100
|10.5
|100
|17.5
|100
|15
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|1
|4.2
|0.5
|0.92
|0.5
|0.08
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|1
|1.36
|0
|0
|0.5
|1
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.44
|30
|0.38
|29
|0.46
|29
|0.41
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Sapo_NP.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Sapo National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Sapo_NP.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Sapo National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01654"></span>Anderson, J. R., Williamson, E. A., & Carter, J. (1983). Chimpanzees of Sapo Forest, Liberia: Density, nests, tools and meat-eating. ''Primates'', 24(4), 594-601. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02381692 doi:10.1007/bf02381692]

<span id="R01655"></span>Collen, B., Howard, R., Konie, J., Daniel, O., & Rist, J. (2011). Field surveys for the Endangered pygmy hippopotamus Choeropsis liberiensis in Sapo National Park, Liberia. ''Oryx'', 45(1), 35-37. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605310001444 doi:10.1017/s0030605310001444]

<span id="R01656"></span>Greengrass, E. (2015). Commercial hunting to supply urban markets threatens mammalian biodiversity in Sapo National Park, Liberia. ''Oryx'', 50(3), 397-404. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605315000095 doi:10.1017/s0030605315000095]

<span id="R01657"></span>N’Goran, K. P., Kouakou, C. Y., & Herbinger, I. (2010). Report on the population survey and monitoring of chimpanzee in Sapo National Park, Liberia (June–December 2009) [Report]. Wild Chimpanzee Foundation.

<span id="R01658"></span>Peal, A. L., & Kranz, K. R. (1990). Antelopes: Global survey and regional action plans, Part 3: West and Central Africa. World Conservation Union.

<span id="R01659"></span>Tweh, C., Kouakou, C. Y., Chira, R., Freeman, B., Githaiga, J. M., Kerwillain, S., Molokwu-Odozi, M., Varney, M., & Junker, J. (2018). Nest counts reveal a stable chimpanzee population in Sapo National Park, Liberia. Primate Conservation, 32, 12 pp.

<span id="R01660"></span>Vogt, M. (2011). Results of Sapo National Park bio-monitoring programme 2007–2009 [Report]. Fauna & Flora International.

<span id="R01661"></span>Waitkuwait, W. E. (2003). Report on the first year of operation of a community-based bio-monitoring programme in and around Sapo National Park, Sinoe County, Liberia [Report]. Fauna and Flora International.

<span id="R01662"></span>Wild Chimpanzee Foundation. (2019). Activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa: Annual report 2018.

<span id="R02313"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Ben Tally & APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-01-23

'''Page updated by: '''Ben Tally & APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2025-10-29

Sankuru Nature Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:45Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Sankuru Nature Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sankuru_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sankuru_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sankuru_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sankuru_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sankuru_Nature_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-2.675223, 24.334955~[[Sankuru Nature Reserve]]~''Pan paniscus''}}</div>
* Bonobos (''Pan paniscus'') are present in Sankuru Nature Reserve.
* The population size is unknown.
* The population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 30,570 km².
* Key threats to bonobos are logging and wood harvesting.
* Conservation activities have focused on the implementation of a REDD+ project.

= Site characteristics =

The Sankuru Nature Reserve is located in central Democratic Republic of Congo. The diversity of wildlife in Sankuru is remarkable; in addition to the bonobo, other species of conservation concern found at the site include the okapi (Okapia johnstoni), and at least 10 other species of primates, including the rare owl faced monkey and blue monkey. Sankuru also contains elephants, which have been hunted out in many other areas of the Congo forest ([https://www.bonobo.org/programs/sankuru-nature-reserve BCI]). <br>
At 30,570 square kilometers (11,800 square miles), the Sankuru Nature Reserve is the world’s largest continuous protected area for great apes. This important site began at the grassroots level with local communities and is the first large-scale reserve in Congo to be co-managed by the indigenous people. In addition to protecting great apes, this reserve is also a vital part of our environmental initiatives: REDD+, watershed protection, and species conservation ([https://www.bonobo.org/preserving-rainforest BCI 2024]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan paniscus''
|-
|Area
|30,570 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -2.675223 , Lon: 24.334955
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Nature Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical swamp forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan paniscus''
|2007-2009
|Present
|0.02
|
|
|~6,900 km² (30% of Sankuru Nature Reserve)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01652|Liengola et al. 2009]]
|
|COD0202
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Concentrated near towns and along roads crossing the reserve; leads to habitat fragmentation and reduced food plant availability for bonobos ([[#R01653|Nyembo et al. 2020]], [[#R01652|Liengola et al. 2009]]).
|2000,2010-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1.2 Small-holder farming
|Present (unknown severity)
|Expansion of agriculture reported within and around reserve ([[#R01652|Liengola et al. 2009]]). Smallholder, low-input agriculture causing forest conversion ([[#R01651|Future Carbon International 2022]]).
|2001-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1.3 Commercial bushmeat trade
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Bushmeat hunting and commercial hunting pressure are reported ([[#R01652|Liengola et al. 2009]]), with organized hunting supplying the bushmeat trade and targeting bonobos, other primates, elephants, and various mammals. This has remained a major concern since the early days of the reserve ([[#R01650|Bonobo Conservation Initiative 2007]]). Bonobo groups experience immediate and significant impacts, while the underground market trade continues (evidenced by a bonobo carcass found in Lomela, 2018) ([[#R01653|Nyembo et al. 2020]]). The reserve suffers from continuous deforestation and hunting of wild animals. From 2001 to
2021 ([[#R01651|Future Carbon International 2022]]).
|2001-Ongoing (2022)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Forest loss in the region ([[#R02010|Global Forest Watch]]). Since 2001, the main drivers of forest degradation in the DRC are slash-and-burn agriculture, followed by
logging, charcoal production and artisanal loggers ([[#R01651|Future Carbon International 2022]]).
|2001-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|In 2020, more than 1,500 km² of old-growth forest within Sankuru was reportedly burned - part of broader fires affecting Sankuru Province. The 2020 wildfires exacerbated habitat loss, raising serious concerns over the effectiveness of protection and enforcement inside Sankuru ([[#R02011|Mongabay 2020]]). Slash and burning forests reported ([[#R01651|Future Carbon International 2022]]).
|2020-Ongoing (2022)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a protected area, a nature reserve established through a partnership between the government, the Bonobo Conservation Initiative (BCI), and local communities, including its Congolese partner ACOPRIK ([[#R01650|Bonobo Conservation Initiative 2007]]).
|Bonobo Conservation Initiative (BCI), local communities, Congolese partner ACOPRIK, DRC government
|2007-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.1 Provide monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., REDD, alternative income, employment)
|Sankuru is the recipient of the first REDD+ (Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation) contract in the DRC, indicating its vital role in pioneering a new paradigm for community-led conservation. In addition to combating climate change, the REDD+ aims to protect ecosystem diversity and helps to ensure the livelihoods and welfare of the local people ([[#R02060|BCI]], [[#R01651|Future Carbon International 2022]]).
|Bonobo Conservation Initiative (BCI), local communities, Congolese partner ACOPRIK, DRC government
|2022-Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01653|Nyembo et al. 2020]]
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.1 Political/economic instability
|[[#R01653|Nyembo et al. 2020]]
|2006
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.6 Local community engagement and support
|[https://www.bonobo.org/programs/sankurunature-reserve BCI]
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.2 Strong government support
|[[#R01652|Liengola et al. 2009]]
|Ongoing (2009)
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02312|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02312|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.6
|25.8
|25.7
|26.1
|27.1
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1750
|1717
|1743
|1736
|1779
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|12.2
|21.1
|20.7
|24.8
|19.6
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.7
|10.1
|10
|10.8
|12.1
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Sankuru Nature Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|13
|0.06
|11
|0.01
|11.5
|0.04
|26.5
|0.04
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|7
|40.18
|5.5
|23.33
|7.5
|56.77
|18.5
|46.35
|-
|River flood
|4.75
|0.06
|3
|0.22
|4
|0.17
|5
|0.45
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.72
|30
|0.7
|29
|0.8
|29
|0.64
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Sankuru.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Sankuru Nature Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Sankuru.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Sankuru Nature Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://www.bonobo.org/preserving-rainforest BCI] <br>
[https://news.mongabay.com/2021/08/l-a-sized-tract-of-primary-forest-went-up-in-flames-in-drc-province-in-2020/ L.A.-sized tract of primary forest went up in flames in DRC province in 2020-MONGABAY] <br>
[https://news.mongabay.com/2007/11/rainforest-reserve-established-in-dr-congo-to-save-bonobo/ Rainforest Reserve Established in DR Congo to save bonobo-MONGABAY 2007]

= References =

<span id="R01650"></span>Bonobo Conservation Initiative. (2007, November 19). Rainforest reserve established in DR Congo to save bonobo. Mongabay. https://news.mongabay.com/2007/11/rainforest-reserve-established-in-dr-congo-to-save-bonobo/

<span id="R01651"></span>Future Carbon International LLC. (2022). Sankuru Peace Forest grouped REDD project (Version 1.0; VCS Version 4.1) [Project description]. Future Carbon International.

<span id="R01652"></span>Liengola, I., Vosper, A., Maisels, F., Bonyenge, A., & Nkumu, P. (2009). Conserving bonobos in the last unexplored forest of the Democratic Republic of Congo–the Tshuapa-Lomami-Lualaba Landscape [Unpublished report]. Wildlife Conservation Society.

<span id="R01653"></span>Nyembo, F., Mertens, B., Cherif, M., & Koné, I. (2020). Menaces d’origine anthropique et habitat de Pan paniscus dans la Réserve Naturelle de Sankuru, en République démocratique du Congo. HAL—Centre pour la communication scientifique ouverte. https://hal.science/hal-03285049/document

<span id="R02312"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

<span id="R02010"></span>Global Forest Watch. https://www.globalforestwatch.org/

<span id="R02011"></span>Mongabay 2020. https://news.mongabay.com/2021/08/l-a-sized-tract-of-primary-forest-went-up-in-flames-in-drc-province-in-2020/

<span id="R02060"></span>BCI. https://www.bonobo.org/programs/sankurunature-reserve

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-02-27

'''Page updated by: '''Aime Mizero''' Date:''' 2026-06-02

Sangaredi

2026-10-15T21:54:44Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Republic of Guinea]] > [[Sangaredi]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sangaredi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sangaredi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sangaredi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sangaredi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Sangaredi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|11.10, -13.79~[[Sangaredi]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Sangaredi.
* It has been estimated that more than 200 individuals occurred in two neighboring bauxite mining concessions prior to mining exploitations.
* The chimpanzee population trend is very likely declining due to mining activities.
* This site has a total size of 1542 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are mining and logging.
* The following conservation activities were implemented by the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF): environmental education (Club P.A.N. and theater plays) and forest regeneration.
* Sangaredi is a mining town and mining operations have been ongoing for several decades.

= Site characteristics =

Sangaredi is a mining town in the prefecture Boké in Guinea. Mining exploitation for bauxite began in 1973 and a railway connects the mining site to the port of Kamsar for the ore to be shipped overseas. Mining concessions around Sangaredi are owned by different mining companies, including the Bauxite Company of Guinea (CBG, owned by the Government of Guinea), Guinea Alumina Corporation (GAC) and Halco, with the latter two being consortia owned by transnational mining companies with changing ownership over the years.

Sangaredi is characterized by moist savanna with gallery forests along rivers. However, decades of mining and intense anthropogenic influence, including agriculture, logging and hunting, led to large-scale degradation of ecosystems. Still, biodiversity surveys by [https://www.conservation.org/projects/Pages/Rapid-Assessment-Program.aspx Conservation International] and the [http://www.wildchimps.org Wild Chimpanzee Foundation] confirmed the presence of different primate species including western chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes verus''), Temminck’s red colobus (''Piliocolobus temminckii''), green monkey (''Chlorocebus sabaeus''), sooty mangabey (''Cercocebus atys''), patas monkey (''Erythrocebus patas''), Campbell’s monkey (''Cercopithecus campbelli'') and galago (''Galagoides sp.'' ,[[#R01639|Eriksson & Kpoghomou 2006]], [[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). In addition, 5 reptile, 17 amphibian, 140 bird and 16 non-primate mammal species were recorded during the Rapid Biological Assessment in 2005 at the site ([[#R01649|Wright et al. 2006]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|1,542 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 11.10 , Lon: -13.79
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest, Agricultural land, Savanna, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

[[#R01644|Sugiyama and Soumah (1988)]] and [[#R01640|Ham (1998)]] confirmed the presence of western chimpanzees throughout Boké prefecture. As part of a rapid biological assessment in 2005 in Boulléré just to the west of Sangaredi the presence of western chimpanzees was established by [[#R01639|Eriksson and Kpoghomou (2006)]]. The [http://www.wildchimps.org Wild Chimpanzee Foundation] corporates with Guinea Alumina Corporation (GAC) since 2008 to assess the impact of mining on chimpanzees in their mining concession, and suggested mitigation measures (offset) as part of a comprehensive management plan ([[#R01645|WCF 2011]], [[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). In 2015 WCF started working with the Bauxite Company of Guinea (CBG) on a concession neighboring the GAC concession (CBG Halco concession). As part of these collaborations, the WCF monitored the local chimpanzee population across several years and estimated a total chimpanzee abundance of more than 200 individuals around Sangaredi. A population trend assessment showed stable population from 2008 until 2014 in the GAC concession ([[#R01642|Kühl et al. 2017]]). Nevertheless, with starting mining exploitation in these concessions and the ensuing habitat destruction and increase in anthropogenic pressures, the chimpanzee population is now very likely declining ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2015
|
|
|0.1
|62 (33-118)
|CBG Halco concession (530 km²)
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01648|WCF 2015]]
|Total survey effort: 139 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2015
|
|
|0.33
|252 (147-423)
|GAC concession
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01648|WCF 2015]]
|Total survey effort: 254 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2014
|
|
|0.25
|174.0
|GAC concession
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01647|WCF 2014]]
|Total survey effort: 254 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2012
|
|
|0.14
|142.0
|GAC concession
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01646|WCF 2012]]
|Total survey effort: 348 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2011
|
|
|0.25
|266.0
|GAC concession
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01646|WCF 2012]]
|Total survey effort: 339 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|
|0.18
|190.0
|GAC concession
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01646|WCF 2012]]
|Total survey effort: 347 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2009
|
|
|0.11
|119.0
|GAC concession (685 km²)
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01646|WCF 2012]]
|Total survey effort: 537 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2005
|Present
|
|
|
|Boulléré
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01639|Eriksson & Kpoghomou 2006]]
|Total survey effort: 37.8 km; walking existing trail system
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1997
|Present
|
|
|
|Boké prefecture
|Interviews
|
|[[#R01640|Ham 1998]]
|Questionnaire survey
|GIN0019, GIN0021
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1988
|Present
|
|
|
|Boké prefecture
|Interviews
|
|[[#R01644|Sugiyama & Soumah 1988]]
|Questionnaire survey
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

As mining operations have been ongoing since 1973 the ecosystem is strongly impacted by anthropogenic pressures, especially logging and charring, agriculture, mining, the construction of roads, the presence of settlements, as well as hunting and fishing, and livestock keeping ([[#R01647|WCF 2014]], [[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). Mining exploitation was planned to start by 2016 in the GAC concession, but the current status is unclear. However, chimpanzee habitat has already been destroyed in the mining concession ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). In connection with the mining project, concerns have been raised in relation to social issues (e.g., work insecurity, loss of livelihoods, displacement, and corruption), environmental damage by pollution (air, soil, and water), crop damage and changes in the hydrology ([[#R01638|Environmental Justice Atlas 2019]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Mining town of Sangaredi newly established ([[#R01638|Environmental Justice Atlas 2019]]).
|1973-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Slash and burn agriculture and rice fields ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]], [[#R01649|Wright et al. 2006]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Detection of livestock on camera traps ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Mining exploitation since 1973 ([[#R01638|Environmental Justice Atlas 2019]]).
|1973-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Road development for mining activities ([[#R01638|Environmental Justice Atlas 2019]]).
|1973-Ongoing (2019)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Bushmeat study confirmed hunting of primates ([[#R01647|WCF 2014]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Wood-cutting mainly for charcoal ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]).
|Ongoing (2015)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Present (unknown severity)
|Fires are set for clearing areas for agricultural use ([[#R01647|WCF 2014]], [[#R01649|Wright et al. 2006]]).
|Ongoing (2014)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.2 Industrial & military effluents
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Contamination of air, water and soil ([[#R01638|Environmental Justice Atlas 2019]]).
|1973-Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Since 2008, the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation collaborates with the Guinea Alumina Project (GAP) to develop and implement a management plan to first minimize negative impacts on chimpanzees and offset any damage ([[#R01645|WCF 2011]]). In 2011, the WCF proposed a management plan that was informed by the annual monitoring surveys that [[#R02140|WCF conducted since 2009]] (see above). When the ownership of the mining company changed, the area proposed for exploitation changed to the southwestern part of the concession and a new management plan was proposed by the WCF ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). It is not clear which part of the management plan is or was implemented. As part of their engagement, the WCF conducted different environmental education activities: an extracurricular environmental education program at schools (Club P.A.N. program), theater tour, environmental newsletter, and chimpanzee film screenings ([[#R01645|WCF 2011]], [[#R01646|WCF 2012]], [[#R01647|WCF 2014]], [[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). Community consultations revealed that water is key for local agricultural activities, and in collaboration with local communities the WCF started a program to protect three water sources in the area by protecting the habitat around the water sources – but it is not clear whether protection was implemented ([[#R01647|WCF 2014]], 2015). In 2015, the WCF established a plant nursery with 25,000 plants to be replanted around three water sources ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]).

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Activities at schools (Club P.A.N. program) and villages (theater, film) ([[#R01645|WCF 2011]], 2012, 2014, 2015)
|
|2010-2015
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|Environmental awareness raising activities include theater, film and newsletters ([[#R01645|WCF 2011]], 2012, 2014, 2015)
|
|2010-2015
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Plant nursery with 25,000 plants ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]])
|
|2015
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

Changing ownership of mining companies and volatility of markets for minerals impedes continuous implementation of management plan to mitigate negative impacts of mining operations on chimpanzees ([[#R01648|WCF 2015]]).

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.3 General lack of funding
|[[#R01648|WCF 2015]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

As detailed above several surveys on chimpanzees have been implemented in Sangaredi ([[#R01639|Eriksson & Kpoghomou 2006]], [[#R01649|Wright et al. 2006]], [[#R01646|WCF 2012]], [[#R01647|WCF 2014]], [[#R01648|WCF 2015]]). The [http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/index.php Pan African Programme (PanAf)] ‘The Cultured Chimpanzee’ established a temporary research site in Sangaredi with the aim to record ecological conditions of chimpanzees living in the area and to document chimpanzee behavior ([[#R01641|Kühl et al. 2016]], [[#R01643|Kühl et al. 2019]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Accumulative stone throwing
|
|
|
|[[#R01641|Kühl et al. 2016]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Algae fishing
|
|
|
|[[#R01643|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant dipping
|
|
|
|[[#R01643|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01643|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Making ground nests
|
|
|
|[[#R01643|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02311|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02311|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|26.6
|27.6
|27.5
|27.9
|29
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1931
|1804
|1763
|1844
|1569
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|125.7
|120.8
|117.4
|118.6
|120.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|3.6
|4.7
|4.5
|4.9
|3.2
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Sangaredi'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|6
|0.45
|4.5
|0.45
|6.5
|0.45
|12
|0.45
|-
|Drought
|1.25
|50
|0.75
|75
|1
|50
|4.25
|100
|-
|Heatwave
|2.5
|100
|1.5
|50
|2
|100
|6.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.03
|1
|1.86
|1
|1.3
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0.5
|1.59
|0.5
|3
|1.5
|1.62
|0.5
|0.93
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|2.02
|30
|2.01
|29
|2.14
|29
|3.39
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Sangaredi.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Sangaredi]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Sangaredi.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Sangaredi]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01638"></span>Environmental Justice Atlas. 2019. Iron Mine on Simandou Mountain Range, Mine de Fer, Guinée, [https://ejatlas.org/conflict/bauxite-mining-boke-guinea ejatlas.org] [https://ejatlas.org/conflict/simandoun-mine link]

<span id="R01639"></span>Eriksson, J., & Kpoghoumou, E. (2006). A Rapid Survey of the Primates of Boké Préfecture, Northwestern Guinea. In ''A Rapid Biological Assessment of Boké Préfecture, Northwestern Guinea 145''. Conservation International. 41. [https://doi.org/10.1896/054.041.0114 doi:10.1896/054.041.0114]

<span id="R01640"></span>Ham R. 1998 Nationwide chimpanzee census and large mammal survey Republic of Guinea. Projet de conservation des chimpanzés en Guineée. Report to the European Union.

<span id="R01641"></span>Kühl, H. S., Kalan, A. K., Arandjelovic, M., Aubert, F., D’Auvergne, L., Goedmakers, A., …, & Boesch, C. (2016). Chimpanzee accumulative stone throwing. ''Scientific Reports'', 6(1). [https://doi.org/10.1038/srep22219 doi:10.1038/srep22219]

<span id="R01642"></span>Kühl, H. S., Sop, T., Williamson, E. A., Mundry, R., Brugière, D., Campbell, G., …, & Boesch, C. (2017). The Critically Endangered western chimpanzee declines by 80%. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 79(9), e22681. [https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22681 doi:10.1002/ajp.22681]

<span id="R01643"></span>Kühl, H. S., Boesch, C., Kulik, L., Haas, F., Arandjelovic, M., Dieguez, P., …, & Kalan, A. K. (2019). Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. ''Science'', 363(6434), 1453-1455. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4532 doi:10.1126/science.aau4532]

<span id="R01644"></span>Sugiyama, Y., & Soumah, A. G. (1988). Preliminary survey of the distribution and population of chimpanzees in the Republic of Guinea. ''Primates'', 29(4), 569-574. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02381144 doi:10.1007/bf02381144]

<span id="R01645"></span>WCF. 2011. Annual report of the activities undertaken by the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation to improve the protection of wild chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa – Year 2011. Online: [https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html Wild Chimpanzee Foundation] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241112052804/https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html link]

<span id="R01646"></span>WCF. 2012. Annual report 2012 – activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa. Online: [https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html Wild Chimpanzee Foundation] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241112052804/https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html link]

<span id="R01647"></span>WCF. 2014. Annual report 2014 – activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa. Online: [https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html Wild Chimpanzee Foundation] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241112052804/https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html link]

<span id="R01648"></span>WCF. 2015. Annual report 2015 – activities of the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation for improved conservation of chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa. Online: [https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html Wild Chimpanzee Foundation] [https://web.archive.org/web/20241112052804/https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html link]

<span id="R01649"></span>Wright HE et al. 2006. A Rapid Biological Assessment of Boké Préfecture, Northwestern Guinea. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 41. Conservation International, Washington, DC.

<span id="R02140"></span>WCF. (2009). Rapport sur le recensement des chimpanzés dans le Parc National de la Comoé, Côte d’Ivoire. Wild Chimpanzee Foundation. https://www.wildchimps.org/reports/reports.html

<span id="R02311"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team & Julia Riedel''' Date:''' 2019-11-25

Rwenzori Mountains National Park

2026-10-15T21:54:43Z

WikiEdit:

[[East Africa]] > [[Uganda]] > [[Rwenzori Mountains National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwenzori_Mountains_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwenzori_Mountains_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwenzori_Mountains_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwenzori_Mountains_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwenzori_Mountains_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|0.363517, 29.949944~[[Rwenzori Mountains National Park]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Rwenzori Mountains National Park.
* It has been estimated that 231 individuals occur in the site.
* The population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 996 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are illegal logging, bushmeat hunting, and illegal resource harvesting.
* Conservation activities implemented include conducting anti-poaching patrols.

= Site characteristics =

Located in western Uganda, Rwenzori Mountains National Park comprises part of the Rwenzori mountain chain, including Africa's third highest peak, Mt Stanley's Margherita Peak at 5,109 m above sea level ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/ UNESCO]). The park is contiguous with the Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ([[#R01611|BirdLife International 2020]]). The region's glaciers, waterfalls and lakes make it one of the most fascinating afro-alpine areas.The park is known for its rich and unique flora; some of the world's rarest vegetation can be found here ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/ UNESCO]). Some unusual flora found here include the giant heather, and two species of forest tree, ''Hypericum bequaertii'' and ''Schefflera polysciadia'', which are only known from Rwenzori ([[#R01611|BirdLife International 2020]]; [https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/rwenzori-mountains-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). In addition, the site is home to 70 mammals and 217 bird species, including 19 Albertine Rift endemics ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/ UNESCO]; [[#R01611|BirdLife International 2020]]). Twenty-five invertebrate species from the area have been described in the last 15 years ([[#R01611|BirdLife International 2020]]). Mammal species of conservation concern include the Rwenzori duiker (''Cephalophus rubidus''), forest elephants (''Loxodonta cyclotis''), eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''), Ruwenzori colobus (''Colobus angolensis ruwenzorii'') and L'Hoest's monkey (''Cercopithecus l’hoesti''); subspecies of blue monkey (''Cercopithecus mitis'') and rock hyrax (''Procavia capensis'') are only known from Rwenzori Mountains National Park ([[#R01611|BirdLife International 2020]]).

Henry Stanley, an explorer, placed the Rwenzori in the map in 1888; he documented "Ruwenzori" as a local name meaning “rain-maker” or “cloud-king” ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/rwenzori-mountains-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). Before that, the Rwenzoris were named “Mountains of the Moon” by the Alexandrine geographer Ptolemy in AD 150 (Uganda Wildlife Authority). Much later, in 1941, the site was declared a Forest Reserve; in 1991 it was gazetted as a National Park, and in 1995 it was declared a [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/ UNESCO World Heritage Site] ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/rwenzori-mountains-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]). The park was designated as a [https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1861?language=en Ramsar Site] in 2008. The Rwenzori mountains are not volcanic, as other major mountains in East Africa, but they are a block of rock up-faulted through the floor of the Western Rift Valley. The site has been long known by mountaineers. The oldest person to reach Marguerita Peak was Ms. Beryl Park, aged 78 in 2010 ([https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/rwenzori-mountains-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|996 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 0.363517 , Lon: 29.949944
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Rocky areas (inland cliffs, mountain peaks), Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes)
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2016
|
|
|
|231.0
|Rwenzori Mountains National Park
|Opportunistic observation
|
|[[#R01612|Makombo 2017]]
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2010
|
|
|0.385
|384.0
|Rwenzori Mountains National Park
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01612|Makombo 2017]]
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2000
|
|
|0.506
|500.0
|Rwenzori Mountains National Park
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01612|Makombo 2017]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The main threats to the park are illegal logging, bushmeat hunting, and illegal resource harvesting, especially of bamboo ([https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/971#:~:text=The%20main%20threats%20to%20the,resource%20harvesting%2C%20especially%20of%20bamboo. UNESCO]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Hunting for bushmeat ([[#R01613|UNESCO]]).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Present (unknown severity)
|Harvesting plants, especially bamboo ([[#R01613|UNESCO]]).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Illegal logging ([[#R01613|UNESCO]]).
|Ongoing (2020)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Anti-poaching patrols are conducted at the site ([[#R01613|UNESCO]]).
|
|1991-Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site was designated as a National Park in 1991.
|
|1991-Ongoing (2026)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10933-020-00161-x Recent climate-driven ecological changes in tropical montane lakes of Rwenzori Mountains National Park, central Africa]

[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800917314684 Looking for Medium-term Conservation and Development Impacts of Community Management Agreements in Uganda's Rwenzori Mountains National Park]

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02310|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02310|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|18.2
|19.3
|19.2
|19.5
|20.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1182
|1208
|1282
|1169
|1333
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|14.5
|19.5
|23.2
|22.3
|21.8
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.4
|6.6
|8.4
|6.7
|11.1
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Rwenzori Mountains National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|0.71
|1.5
|0.1
|1.5
|0.26
|1.5
|0.17
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1
|0.01
|3
|0.85
|1
|0.02
|4.5
|0.27
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|1.34
|30
|1.15
|29
|1.22
|29
|0.78
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Rwenzori_Mountains_NP.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Rwenzori Mountains National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Rwenzori_Mountains_NP.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Rwenzori Mountains National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/684/ Rwenzori Mountains National Park UNESCO]

[https://www.ugandawildlife.org/explore-our-parks/parks-by-name-a-z/rwenzori-mountains-national-park Uganda Wildlife Authority]

[https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/1861?language=en Rwenzori Mountains National Park Ramsar]

= References =

<span id="R01611"></span>BirdLife International. (2020). Important Bird Areas factsheet: Ruwenzori (Rwenzori) Mountains National Park. Retrieved from http://www.birdlife.org on 16/12/2020.

<span id="R01612"></span>Makombo, J. (2017). State of Conservation Report for Rwenzori Mountains National Park World Heritage Property –

<span id="R01613"></span>Uganda. World Heritage Centre, UNESCO.

<span id="R02310"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2020-12-30

Rwanda Nationwide

2026-10-15T21:54:42Z

WikiEdit:

[[East Africa]] > [[Rwanda]] > [[Rwanda Nationwide]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwanda_Nationwide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwanda_Nationwide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwanda_Nationwide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwanda_Nationwide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rwanda_Nationwide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|-1.991215, 29.949308~[[Rwanda Nationwide]]~''Gorilla beringei beringei'', ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Rwanda is home to two species of great apes: the mountain gorilla (''Gorilla beringei beringei'') and the eastern chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'').
* The estimated populations of great apes in Rwanda include 669 gorillas (CI: 623–759) in the Virunga Massif (Volcanoes National Park), 306 chimpanzees in Nyungwe National Park (as of 2009), and 28 individuals in Gishwati-Mukura National Park.
* Gorilla population trend is increasing in Volcanoes National Park, chimpanzee trend numbers are increasing in Gishwati-Mukura National Park, whereas chimpanzee population trend is decreasing in Nyungwe National Park.
* The combined area of Rwanda’s great ape protected sites comprises Volcanoes National Park (160 km²), Nyungwe National Park (1,019 km²), and Gishwati-Mukura National Park (35.58 km²).
* The key threats remain habitat loss, poaching, logging, and mining.
* The conservation activities have mainly focused on ecotourism and research activities.
* Rwanda’s integrated conservation and tourism model has made it a leader in ape conservation in Africa.
= Site characteristics =

Rwanda’s conservation landscape includes three major protected areas relevant to great apes:

• [[Volcanoes National Park]] (160 km²): Situated in the Virunga massif, it is globally renowned for its mountain gorilla population. The park is also home to golden monkeys and diverse montane ecosystems.

• [[Nyungwe National Park]] (1,019 km²): One of Africa’s largest montane rainforests, home to about 300 chimpanzees, 12 other primate species, and remarkable biodiversity.

• [[Gishwati-Mukura National Park]] (35.58 km²): Rwanda’s newest national park, gazetted in 2015, comprising two forest fragments. It harbors around 30 chimpanzees, along with golden and L’Hoest’s monkeys.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Rwanda Nationwide'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Gorilla beringei beringei'', ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|26,338 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: -1.991215 , Lon: 29.949308
|-
|Type of site
|Nation
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Rocky areas (inland cliffs, mountain peaks)
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by the government, Shared governance
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
= Ape status =

Mountain gorillas in '''Volcanoes National Park''' number around 600, and the population trend is reported to be increasing. Chimpanzees in '''Nyungwe''' are estimated at around 300 individuals. Two habituated communities reside in the park: the Mayebe community (50–60 individuals) and the Cyamudongo community (35–40 individuals; [[#R01591|Moore et al. 2018a]]).
Meanwhile, '''Gishwati-Mukura''' holds about 30 individuals. The chimpanzee population in the Gishwati forest has increased in size—from 13 individuals in 2007, to 19 in 2010, and more recently, in 2019, chimpanzee trackers were able to identify 28 individuals ([[#R01568|Chancellor et al. 2020]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Rwanda Nationwide'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2019
|
|
|
|28.0
|Gishwati Forest
|Full count
|
|[[#R01568|Chancellor et al. 2020]]
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2015-16
|
|
|
|669 (623-759)
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Spatially explicit capture-recapture, Reconnaissance walk
|[[#R02080|Granjon et al. 2020]]
|Combination of recces and mark-recapture; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2010
|
|
|
|480
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Count method
|[[#R02081|Gray et al. 2013]]
|Recces; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2009-2010
|
|
|
|19.0
|Gishwati Forest Reserve
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|
|[[#R01567|Chancellor et al. 2012]]
|
|RWA0002
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2009
|
|
|
|306.0
|Nyungwe Forest National Park
|Line transects
|
|WCS unpublished data, cited by Plumptre et al. 2010
|
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2004-2005
|
|
|
|380.0
|Nyungwe Forest National Park
|Unknown
|
|WCS unpublished data, cited by Plumptre et al. 2010
|
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2003
|
|
|
|380
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Genetic (dung/hair)
|Count method
|Gray et al. 2003
|Recces; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|2000
|
|
|
|359-395
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Other (type here)
|Count method
|[[#R01585|Kalpers et al. 2003]]
|Used regular ranger patrols to count nests of unhabituated groups and known number of gorillas from habituated groups; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1989
|
|
|
|324
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Count method
|Sholley 1991
|Counted night nests; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1986
|
|
|
|293
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Count method
|Vedder and Aveling 1986
|Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1981
|
|
|
|254
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Line transects
|Count method
|[[#R02082|Aveling and Harcourt 1984]]
|Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1976-78
|
|
|
|268
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Other (type here)
|Count method
|[[#R02083|Weber and Vedder 1983]]
|Used recces to count direct sightings, count nests and used demographic information from monitored groups; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1971-73
|
|
|
|274
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|Count method
|[[#R02084|Harcourt and Groom 1972]], [[#R02085|Groom 1973]]
|Used recces and nest counts; estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|-
|''Gorilla beringei beringei''
|1959-60
|
|
|
|400-500
|Virunga massif (450 km²)
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R02086|Schaller 1963]]
|Estimate for the entire population including gorillas in DRC and Uganda
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]
= Threats =

Great apes in Rwanda face a range of interlinked threats across their habitats. In [[Volcanoes National Park]], mountain gorillas were historically impacted by large-scale agricultural conversion, with about half of the park destroyed in the 1950s and 1960s (Weber, 1987, 1989; [[#R01586|Maekawa et al., 2013]]). Although intentional hunting for trophies and live animal trade has ceased, gorillas remain highly vulnerable to snares set for other wildlife ([[#R01599|Robbins et al., 2011]]). Diseases, including respiratory viruses, gastrointestinal parasites, measles, and outbreaks of Ebola and rabies in the wider region, continue to present a major threat ([[#R02306|Mazet et al., 2020]]; [[#R01582|Hassell et al., 2017]]; [[#R01595|Petrželková et al., 2021]], 2022). Human encroachment, small-scale logging, livestock grazing, fire, and invasive species further pressure gorilla habitat ([[#R01566|Bush, 2010]]; [[#R01583|Hoek et al., 2023]]; [[#R01607|Uzabaho et al., 2023]]).

In [[Nyungwe National Park]], chimpanzees are primarily threatened by snares set for other wildlife, which frequently cause accidental injury or death ([[#R01592|Moore et al., 2018b]]; Grueter, pers. comm. 2025). Although poaching levels are lower than in other regions, it remains persistent, with nearly 40,000 poaching-related incidents recorded between 2006 and 2015 ([[#R01592|Moore et al., 2018b]]). Mining activities, fires set to harvest honey, crop-raiding conflicts, and invasive species such as the fast-spreading liana Sericostachys contribute to long-term risks for both chimpanzees and their forest habitat ([[#R01597|Plumptre et al., 2002]]; [[#R01601|Scholte et al., 2010]]).

In [[Gishwati-Mukura National Park]], chimpanzees are severely impacted by historical deforestation, with only a fraction of the forest remaining by the early 2000s (NASA Earth Observatory; [[#R01568|Chancellor et al., 2020]]). Ongoing pressures include illegal logging, agricultural expansion, and mining, which continue to degrade and fragment critical habitat for this small and isolated chimpanzee population ([[#R01568|Chancellor et al., 2020]]).

= Conservation activities =

Rwanda has developed one of the most extensive great ape conservation programs in Africa, combining strict protection, community engagement, research, and health interventions. [[Volcanoes National Park]], home to the mountain gorilla, was first legally protected in 1925, making it Africa’s oldest national park ([[#R01585|Kalpers et al., 2003]]). Since then, a wide range of conservation measures have been implemented. These include long-term anti-poaching patrols and daily monitoring of habituated gorilla groups ([[#R01581|Harcourt, 1986]]; [[#R01603|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001a]]), snare removal, and the permanent presence of rangers, veterinarians, and researchers (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, 2025). Gorilla health interventions have been central, with the creation of Gorilla Doctors to monitor, treat, and vaccinate apes when necessary ([[#R02307|Morrison et al., 2021]]; [[#R01602|Spelman et al., 2013]]). Rules limiting tourist visitation time, enforcing minimum viewing distances, and requiring masks and gloves are in place to reduce disease transmission ([[#R01574|Gilardi et al., 2021]]). At the same time, conservation has emphasized sustainable community benefits, including tourism employment, cooperatives, and livestock distribution, helping transform former hunters into conservation allies ([[#R01573|Fossey, 1983]]; Rwanda Development Board, 2025). Landmark initiatives such as the Kwita Izina gorilla-naming ceremony and conservation education programs have further raised awareness locally and internationally ([[#R01590|McGuinness, 2014]]).

In [[Nyungwe National Park]], declared a national park in 2004, conservation has focused on protecting chimpanzees and other primates through regular anti-poaching patrols, snare removal, and habitat buffering (Grueter, pers. comm., 2025). Tourist projects such as chimpanzee trekking, canopy walks, and colobus monkey viewing generate both revenue and employment, reinforcing the park’s permanent conservation presence ([[#R01594|Nyungwe Forest National Park, 2025]]). Regulations on tourist contact—limiting visits to one hour and maintaining safe distances—mirror those applied in Volcanoes NP. Local communities also benefit from incentive programs such as employment to local people and alternative income opportunities, linking forest conservation with sustainable livelihoods (Grueter, pers. comm., 2025).

In [[Gishwati-Mukura National Park]], more recent interventions have combined law enforcement, education, and habitat restoration. Declared a national park in 2015 ([[#R01584|Inman & Ntoyinkama, 2020]]), the site has eco-guards patrolling against logging, charcoal production, and mining, while eco-clubs in local schools raise awareness among youth ([[#R01568|Chancellor et al., 2020]]). Long-term chimpanzee research, initiated in 2008, continues to ensure a permanent conservation presence and provides critical data for future management ([[#R01568|Chancellor et al., 2020]]). A central goal of past and ongoing initiatives has been restoring the forest corridor to Nyungwe, preserving gene flow between the two chimpanzee populations ([[#R01568|Chancellor et al., 2020]]).

= Challenges =

Conservation of Rwanda’s great apes is constrained by a suite of long-standing, interlinked challenges. In '''Volcanoes National Park''', large-scale habitat conversion (with more than half the park altered for agriculture and settlement in the mid-20th century) remain a legacy that complicates site management and community relations (Weber, 1987, 1989). Recurrent shortfalls in funding, equipment, infrastructure and specialist training limit the scope and effectiveness of conservation interventions, and more recently the COVID-19 pandemic caused sharp losses in tourism income, unemployment and gaps in monitoring and research — all of which weakened on-the-ground capacity and community incentives for conservation ([[#R01604|Stewart & Sicotte, 2001b]]; [[#R01574|Gilardi et al., 2021]]). '''Gishwati-Mukura''' faces acute legacy challenges from severe historical deforestation and fragmentation that left only small forest remnants; restoring connectivity, maintaining law enforcement against illegal grazing, logging and mining, and building long-term local stewardship and financing remain central hurdles for effective chimpanzee conservation there ([[#R01569|Chancellor et al., 2021]]; [[#R01584|Inman & Ntoyinkama, 2020]]). Taken together, these issues — historic land-use conflicts, constrained capacity and financing, pandemic shocks, and ongoing illegal resource use. Creating a conservation environment in which sustaining long-term protection, monitoring and community benefits for Rwanda’s mountain gorillas and chimpanzees requires continued investment in training, infrastructure, transboundary coordination and resilient funding mechanisms (Weber, 1987, 1989; [[#R01598|Refisch & Jenson, 2016]]; [[#R01574|Gilardi et al., 2021]]).

= Enablers =

Conservation of Rwanda’s great apes, namely the mountain gorillas in '''Volcanoes National Park''' and the chimpanzees in '''Nyungwe''' and '''Gishwati-Mukura National Parks''', has been facilitated by a strong set of enablers. Adaptive management strategies, such as targeted anti-poaching patrols, have been critical in addressing direct threats ([[#R01599|Robbins et al., 2011]]). Long-term monitoring and research since 1967 have provided a robust scientific foundation for conservation planning, supported by continuous funding and technical expertise from diverse partnerships at local, regional, and international levels ([[#R01599|Robbins et al., 2011]]). Local communities have also become key enablers, benefiting from tourism revenue-sharing schemes—5% of gorilla tourism income was directed to communities in 2005, later raised to 10% in 2017—which has improved livelihoods and fostered positive attitudes toward conservation ([[#R02308|Kalulu et al., 2016]]; [[#R02309|Snyman et al., 2023]]). These programs, alongside employment opportunities as rangers, porters, and guides, have strengthened local support and reduced conflict with the parks. At the institutional level, the Rwandan government has played a central role through strong leadership, policy support, and effective coordination via the Rwanda Development Board, complemented by transboundary cooperation under the Greater Virunga Transboundary Collaboration ([[#R01598|Refisch & Jenson, 2016]]). Stability in Rwanda’s political and socio-economic context since the early 2000s has further reinforced the enabling environment for conservation ([[#R01586|Maekawa et al., 2013]]). Together, these enablers illustrate how integrated governance, community engagement, research, and stability underpin successful great ape conservation in Rwanda.

= Research activities =

Research activities have played a central role in shaping the conservation of Rwanda’s great apes, providing the scientific foundation for effective management and protection. The world’s longest-running gorilla research program was initiated by Dian Fossey in [[Volcanoes National Park]] in 1967, and has continued through the [https://gorillafund.org/ Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund] in partnership with national and international institutions. This work has covered diverse themes, including gorilla ecology, behavior, physiology, ranging patterns, population dynamics, and threats, while also expanding since 2003 to monitor broader ecosystem components such as bamboo phenology, golden monkeys, birds, amphibians, mammals, and climate ([[#R01600|Roelke & Smith, 2010]]; [[#R01606|Tuyisingize et al., 2010]]; [[#R01605|Tuyisingize et al., 2022]]). Gorilla Doctors, founded in 1985, complements these efforts by conducting applied health research on gorilla populations. More recently, social science research around Volcanoes National Park has investigated local community dynamics and conservation engagement (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, n.d.).

In [[Nyungwe National Park]], long-term studies led by Grueter and colleagues since 2016 have examined the Mayebe chimpanzee community, focusing on dietary ecology, ranging decisions, cognitive adaptations, and responses to food scarcity in a thermally challenging, high-elevation habitat. Their work has revealed the importance of figs as staple foods, flexible travel strategies including use of human-made trails, and dynamic home range shifts in response to fruit availability, while also shedding light on socio-ecological drivers of female gregariousness and gut microbiome variation ([[#R01587|Matthews et al., 2019]]; [[#R01588|Matthews et al., 2020]]; [[#R01575|Green, Boruff, & Grueter, 2020]]; [[#R01576|Green, Boruff, Niyigaba, Ndikubwimana, & Grueter, 2020]]; [[#R01589|Matthews et al., 2021]]; [[#R01580|Grueter, Ridley, Kaplin, & Matthews, 2023]]).

Complementary research in [[Gishwati-Mukura National Park]] has been promoted through the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, which emphasizes biodiversity assessments and the integration of conservation science into park management (Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund [CEPF], 2015). Collectively, these diverse research initiatives underscore how rigorous and sustained scientific inquiry has provided the ecological and social knowledge base underpinning conservation of Rwanda’s great apes.

= Documented behaviours =

Documented behaviors of Rwanda’s great apes provide valuable insights into their ecology and cultural repertoire. In '''Volcanoes National Park''', mountain gorilla social, feeding, and ranging behaviors have been intensively studied since 1967, generating one of the most comprehensive long-term behavioral datasets for any primate species (Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund, n.d.). In '''Nyungwe National Park''', chimpanzees have demonstrated notable tool-use behaviors, including the use of sticks to extract honey from both underground nests of stingless bees and arboreal bee nests, highlighting their ecological adaptability and problem-solving skills (Grueter, al-Razi et al., unpublished; Grueter, Green et al., unpublished). Together, these documented behaviors not only deepen scientific understanding but also reinforce the importance of behavioral research for guiding conservation strategies.

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

= External links =

[https://rdb.rw/ Rwanda Development Board (RDB)] <br>
[https://visitrwanda.com/tourism/ Visit Rwanda-Tourism] <br>
[https://visitrwanda.com/destinations/volcanoes-national-park/ Visit Rwanda-Volcanoes National Park] <br>
[https://gorillafund.org/ Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund] <br>
[https://gorillafund.org/what-we-do/scientific-research/scientific-publications/ Scientific Publications] <br>
[https://www.nyungweforest.com/ Nyungwe Forest National Park - A Destination Guide] <br>
[https://www.africanparks.org/the-parks/nyungwe African Parks-Nyungwe National Park] <br>
[https://visitrwanda.com/destinations/nyungwe-national-park-2/ Visit Rwanda-Nyungwe National Park]
[https://rwanda.wcs.org/ WCS Rwanda] <br>
[https://d29l0tur8ol1gj.cloudfront.net/sites/default/files/guidebook-gishwati-mukura-national-park.pdf Gishwati-Mukura National Park_Guide Book] <br>
[https://en.unesco.org/biosphere/africa/gishwati-mukura-landscape Gishwati-Mukura Landscape Biosphere Reserve UNESCO] <br>
[https://visitrwanda.com/destinations/gishwati-mukura-national-park-2/ Visit Rwanda – Gishwati-Mukura National Park] <br>

= References =

<span id="R01566"></span>Bush, G. (2010). Conservation education and community-based approaches to conservation in Rwanda.

<span id="R01567"></span>Chancellor, R. L., Langergraber, K., Ramirez, S., Rundus, A. S., & Vigilant, L. (2012). Genetic Sampling of Unhabituated Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in Gishwati Forest Reserve, an Isolated Forest Fragment in Western Rwanda. ''International Journal of Primatology'', 33(2), 479-488. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-012-9591-6 doi:10.1007/s10764-012-9591-6]

<span id="R01568"></span>Chancellor, R. L., Rundus, A. S., & Nyandwi, S. (2020). Long-term conservation challenges in Gishwati Forest, Rwanda. African Primates, 13(1), 15–30.

<span id="R01569"></span>Chancellor, R., Rundus, A., Nyandwi, S., Nyiratuza, M., & Aimable, T. (2021). Community-based conservation and chimpanzee research in Gishwati Forest, Rwanda. American Journal of Primatology, 83(4), e23195. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23195

<span id="R01570"></span>Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. (2015). Guidebook to Gishwati-Mukura National Park. https://www.cepf.net/sites/default/files/guidebook-gishwati-mukura-national-park.pdf

<span id="R01571"></span>Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund. (n.d.-a). Scientific research. https://gorillafund.org/what-we-do/scientific-research/scientific-publications/

<span id="R01572"></span>Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund. (n.d.-b). What we do. https://gorillafund.org

<span id="R01573"></span>Fossey, D. (1983). Gorillas in the mist. Houghton Mifflin.

<span id="R01574"></span>Gilardi, K. V. K., Düx, A., Gillespie, T. R., Kalema-Zikusoka, G., Leendertz, F., Nze-Nkogue, C., Patrono, L. V., Raphael, J., Sulistyo, F., Syaluha, E. K., & Whittier, C. (2021). Best practice guidelines for health monitoring and disease control in great ape populations. IUCN SSC Primate Specialist Group / IUCN.

<span id="R01575"></span>Green, D. R., Boruff, B. J., & Grueter, C. C. (2020). Chimpanzees use human-made trails to traverse between resource patches. American Journal of Primatology, 82(2), e23065. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23065

<span id="R01576"></span>Green, D. R., Boruff, B. J., Niyigaba, P., Ndikubwimana, T., & Grueter, C. C. (2020). Chimpanzees adapt their ranging behavior in response to fruit scarcity in a montane forest environment. Primates, 61(3), 367–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-020-00789-2

<span id="R01577"></span>Grueter, C. C. (2025). Personal communication.

<span id="R01578"></span>Grueter, C. C., al-Razi, H., Matthews, L., & Ridley, A. (n.d.). Tool use by chimpanzees in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda: Honey extraction from underground bee nests [Unpublished manuscript].

<span id="R01579"></span>Grueter, C. C., Green, D. R., Boruff, B. J., & Matthews, L. (n.d.). Tool use by chimpanzees in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda: Honey extraction from arboreal bee nests [Unpublished manuscript].

<span id="R01580"></span>Grueter, C. C., Ridley, A. R., Kaplin, B. A., & Matthews, L. J. (2023). Social and ecological drivers of female gregariousness in chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology, 34(2), 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arac109

<span id="R01581"></span>Harcourt, A. H. (1986). Gorilla conservation in the Virunga volcanoes. IUCN.

<span id="R01582"></span>Hassell, J. M., Begon, M., Ward, M. J., & Fèvre, E. M. (2017). Urbanization and Disease Emergence: Dynamics at the Wildlife–Livestock–Human Interface. ''Trends in Ecology & Evolution'', 32(1), 55-67. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.09.012 doi:10.1016/j.tree.2016.09.012]

<span id="R01583"></span>Hoek, R. van der, et al. (2023). Fire disturbance and gorilla habitat in Volcanoes National Park. Biological Conservation, 280, 109946.

<span id="R01584"></span>Inman, R., & Ntoyinkama, J. (2020). Rwanda’s Gishwati-Mukura National Park: Community-based conservation and restoration. Parks, 26(1), 103–114.

<span id="R01585"></span>Kalpers, J., Williamson, E. A., Robbins, M. M., & McNeilage, A. (2003). Virunga gorillas: Declining population or successful recovery? Oryx, 37(3), 316–328.

<span id="R01586"></span>Maekawa, A., et al. (2013). Human disturbance history and forest recovery in Volcanoes National Park. Journal of Tropical Forest Science, 25(2), 176–186.

<span id="R01587"></span>Matthews, L. J., Ridley, A. R., Kaplin, B. A., & Grueter, C. C. (2019). Fallback foods and dietary seasonality in montane chimpanzees. International Journal of Primatology, 40(5), 631–655. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-019-00104-1

<span id="R01588"></span>Matthews, L. J., Ridley, A. R., Kaplin, B. A., & Grueter, C. C. (2020). Dietary flexibility in a montane chimpanzee community. American Journal of Primatology, 82(7), e23139. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.23139

<span id="R01589"></span>Matthews, J. K., Ridley, A., Kaplin, B. A., & Grueter, C. C. (2021). Ecological and reproductive drivers of fission-fusion dynamics in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) inhabiting a montane forest. ''Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology'', 75(1), 23. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00265-020-02964-4 doi:10.1007/s00265-020-02964-4]

<span id="R01590"></span>McGuinness, S. (2014). Kwita Izina: Rwanda’s gorilla naming ceremony as conservation education. Conservation Heritage-Turambe Report.

<span id="R01591"></span>Moore, J., Mulindahabi, F., Masozera, M., Nichols, J. D., & Plumptre, A. J. (2018a). Landscape-level conservation planning in the Albertine Rift: Using wildlife surveys to map threats. Conservation Biology, 32(2), 343–356.

<span id="R01592"></span>Moore, J. F., Mulindahabi, F., Masozera, M. K., Nichols, J. D., Hines, J. E., Turikunkiko, E., & Oli, M. K. (2018b). Are ranger patrols effective in reducing poaching-related threats within protected areas? Journal of Applied Ecology, 55(1), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12965

<span id="R01593"></span>NASA Earth Observatory. (2001). Rwanda’s disappearing Gishwati Forest. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov

<span id="R01594"></span>Nyungwe Forest National Park. (2025). Tourism activities. https://nyungweforestnationalpark.org

<span id="R01595"></span>Petrželková, K. J., et al. (2021). Health risks for great apes from human respiratory pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27(12), 2932–2941.

<span id="R01596"></span>Petrželková, K. J., et al. (2022). Viral disease threats to great apes in Central Africa. Primate Conservation, 36, 1–12.

<span id="R01597"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Masozera, M., Fashing, P. J., McNeilage, A., Ewango, C., Kaplin, B. A., & Liengola, I. (2002). Biodiversity Surveys of the Nyungwe Forest Reserve In S.W. Rwanda.WCS Working Paper No. 19. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120604053800/http://anthro.fullerton.edu/pfashing/publications/Biodiversity_surveys.pdf link]

<span id="R01598"></span>Refisch, J., & Jenson, J. (2016). Transboundary collaboration in the Greater Virunga Landscape: From gorilla conservation to conflict-sensitive transboundary landscape management. In ''Governance, Natural Resources, and Post-Conflict Peacebuilding'' (pp. 825-842). Routledge. [https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203109793-39 doi:10.4324/9780203109793-39]

<span id="R01599"></span>Robbins, M. M., Gray, M., Fawcett, K. A., Nutter, F. B., Uwingeli, P., Mburanumwe, I., …, & Robbins, A. M. (2011). Extreme Conservation Leads to Recovery of the Virunga Mountain Gorillas. ''PLoS ONE'', 6(6), e19788. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019788 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0019788]

<span id="R01600"></span>Roelke, C. E., & Smith, T. B. (2010). Amphibian diversity in the Albertine Rift: Endemic species in Volcanoes National Park. African Journal of Ecology, 48(3), 729–737. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2028.2009.01166.x

<span id="R01601"></span>Scholte, P., Rugerinyange, L., Bizimungu, F., & Ruzigandekwe, F. (2010). Reaching consensus: Impact of the liana Sericostachys scandens on forest dynamics in Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda. Oryx, 44(3), 325–326. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s003060531000061x doi:10.1017/s003060531000061x]

<span id="R01602"></span>Spelman, L. H., Gilardi, K. V. K., Lukasik-Braum, M., Kinani, J., Nyirakaragire, E., Lowenstine, L. J., & Cranfield, M. R. (2013). Respiratory disease in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) in Rwanda, 1990–2010: outbreaks, clinical course, and medical management. ''Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine'', 44(4), 1027-1035. [https://doi.org/10.1638/2013-0014r.1 doi:10.1638/2013-0014r.1]

<span id="R01603"></span>Stewart, K. J., & Sicotte, P. (2001a). Mountain gorillas: Three decades of research at Karisoke. Cambridge University Press.

<span id="R01604"></span>Stewart, K. J., & Sicotte, P. (2001b). Primate conservation in Volcanoes National Park: Lessons learned. African Primates, 6(1–2), 21–26.

<span id="R01605"></span>Tuyisingize, D., Kaplin, B. A., & Grueter, C. C. (2022). Ecology and conservation of golden monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis kandti) in the Virunga Massif and Gishwati forest. Primates, 63(6), 487–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-022-00992-0

<span id="R01606"></span>Tuyisingize, D., Uwizeye, R., & Fischer, A. (2010). Small mammal endemism in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(12), 3337–3352. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9901-7

<span id="R01607"></span>Uzabaho, E., et al. (2023). Invasive species management in Volcanoes National Park. African Journal of Ecology, 61(2), 123–134.

<span id="R01608"></span>Weber, A. W. (1987a). Ruhengeri and its resources: An environmental profile of the Ruhengeri Prefecture. ETMA/USAID.

<span id="R01609"></span>Weber, A. W. (1987b). Socioecology of the mountain gorilla [Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin–Madison].

<span id="R01610"></span>Weber, A. W. (1989). Conservation and development on the Zaire–Nile Divide: An analysis of value conflicts and convergence in the management of Afromontane forests in Rwanda [Unpublished doctoral thesis]. University of Wisconsin–Madison.

<span id="R02080"></span>Granjon, A. ‐.C., Robbins, M. M., Arinaitwe, J., Cranfield, M. R., Eckardt, W., Mburanumwe, I., …, & Hickey, J. R. (2020). Estimating abundance and growth rates in a wild mountain gorilla population. ''Animal Conservation'', 23(4), 455-465. [https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12559 doi:10.1111/acv.12559]

<span id="R02081"></span>Gray, M., Roy, J., Vigilant, L., Fawcett, K., Basabose, A., Cranfield, M., …, & Robbins, M. M. (2013). Genetic census reveals increased but uneven growth of a critically endangered mountain gorilla population. ''Biological Conservation'', 158, 230-238. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.09.018 doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2012.09.018]

<span id="R02082"></span>Aveling, C., & Harcourt, A. H. (1984). A census of the Virunga gorillas. ''Oryx'', 18(1), 8-13. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300018524 doi:10.1017/s0030605300018524]

<span id="R02083"></span>Weber, A. W., & Vedder, A. (1983). Population dynamics of the virunga gorillas: 1959–1978. ''Biological Conservation'', 26(4), 341-366. [https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(83)90096-4 doi:10.1016/0006-3207(83)90096-4]

<span id="R02084"></span>Harcourt, A. H., & Groom, A. F. G. (1972). Gorilla Census. ''Oryx'', 11(5), 355-363. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300010401 doi:10.1017/s0030605300010401]

<span id="R02085"></span>Groom, A. F. G. (1973). Squeezing Out the Mountain Gorilla. ''Oryx'', 12(2), 207-215. [https://doi.org/10.1017/s0030605300011558 doi:10.1017/s0030605300011558]

<span id="R02086"></span>Schaller, G. (1963). The mountain gorilla: Ecology and behavior. University of Chicago Press.

<span id="R02306"></span>Mazet, J. A. K., Genovese, B. N., Harris, L. A., Cranfield, M., Noheri, J. B., Kinani, J. F., …, & Gilardi, K. V. K. (2020). Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Detected in Mountain Gorilla Respiratory Outbreaks. ''EcoHealth'', 17(4), 449-460. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-020-01506-8 doi:10.1007/s10393-020-01506-8]

<span id="R02307"></span>Morrison, R. E., Mushimiyimana, Y., Stoinski, T. S., & Eckardt, W. (2021). Rapid transmission of respiratory infections within but not between mountain gorilla groups. ''Scientific Reports'', 11(1), 19622. [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-98969-8 doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98969-8]

<span id="R02308"></span>Kalulu, R., Tushabe, E., & Nsabimana, E. (2016). Local community attitude and perceptions towards tourism conservation policies in Rwanda: Case of Volcanoes National Park. Advances in Economics and Business, 4(12), 631–640. https://doi.org/10.13189/aeb.2016.041201

<span id="R02309"></span>Snyman, S. (., Fitzgerald, K., Bakteeva, A., Ngoga, T., & Mugabukomeye, B. (2023). Benefit-sharing from protected area tourism: A 15-year review of the Rwanda tourism revenue sharing programme. ''Frontiers in Sustainable Tourism'', 1. [https://doi.org/10.3389/frsut.2022.1052052 doi:10.3389/frsut.2022.1052052]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2025-09-22

Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:41Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Cameroon]] > [[Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rumpi_Hills_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rumpi_Hills_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rumpi_Hills_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rumpi_Hills_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rumpi_Hills_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|4.909959, 9.153059~[[Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes ellioti'', ''Gorilla gorilla diehli''}}</div>
* Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes ellioti'') are present in Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve.
* The population size is unknown.
* The population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 455 km².
* Key threats to great apes are human encroachment, agricultural expansion, collection of NFTPs and hunting.
* Conservation activities have focused on community forest monitoring.

= Site characteristics =

Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve (RHFR) is situated in western Cameroon, to the north of Mount Cameroon and south of Korup National Park. The site includes a number of peaks over 1,000 m, the highest of which is Mount Rata at 1,768 m ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]). RHFR was created in 1941; previously it was known as the Rumpi Hills Native Administration Forest Reserve. The site is composed of land belonging to the Ngolo, Bima, and Balue ethnic groups ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]). RHFR comprises an area of mid-altitude forest, part of which has been degraded by logging and agricultural encroachment. Mount Rata has more intact forest than the surroundings. Coastal evergreen and semi-evergreen forest elements are also found at the reserve, as well as many permanent watercourses ([[#R01560|BirdLife International 2001]]). The site is designated as an Important Bird Area ([[#R01560|BirdLife International 2001]]) and a Key Biodiversity Area ([[#R01561|Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership 2020]]). Over 198 bird species have been recorded at the site, including the endangered white-throated mountain-babbler (''Kupeornis gilberti''), white-necked pigeon (''Columba albinucha'') and green-breasted bush-shrike (''Malaconotus gladia-tor''). Additionally, a number of tropical montane mammal, reptile and amphibian species such as the endangered mandrill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), forest shrew (''Myosorex rumpii''), crested porcupine (''Hystrix cristata'') and hairy frog (''Trichobatrachus robustus'') have been identified at RHFR ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]], [[#R01560|BirdLife International 2001]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti'', ''Gorilla gorilla diehli''
|-
|Area
|455 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 4.909959 , Lon: 9.153059
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Forest Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest, Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|
|
|
|
|
|Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

During the 14-year-period between 2000 and 2014, the major land cover changes observed at RHFR were a decrease in dense forest cover and increase in areas under farmlands and secondary forest ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]). This change occurred mostly around villages in lower altitudes along the southern and western borders of the RHFR. In the eastern and northern borders, a majority of the villages are located on hilly terrain; since these topographical conditions do not favor agricultural expansion, the households are mainly involved in hunting, NTFPs and wood collection ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Agro-industry farming ([[#R01561|Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership 2020]]). Between 2000 and 2014, the main land cover change consisted of a decrease in dense forest cover and increase in farmland and secondary forest ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]).
|2000-2014, Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High hunting pressure ([[#R01560|BirdLife International 2001]]). Villages on the eastern and northern borders are more involved in hunting, since the terrain does not favor agricultural expansion ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]).
|2001-Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|NTFPs collected include bush mango (''Irvingia gabonsensis''), bitter cola (''Garcinia cola''), njansang (''Ricinodendron heudelotii''), country onion (''Afrostyrax lepido-phyllus''), bush pepper (''Piper guineense''), land snails (''Archachatina marginata'') and a variety of mushroom species ([[#R01562|Mukete et al. 2018]]).
|Ongoing (2018)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The reserve has been open to logging concessions; much of the forest has been logged or is in a poor state ([[#R01560|BirdLife International 2001]]).
|Ongoing (2001)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.3 Other human disturbances
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Work and other activities ([[#R01561|Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership 2020]])
|Ongoing (2020)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

A project was implemented with the aim of establishing effective community forest monitoring by integrating Global Forest Watch (GFW) data and Participatory 3-Dimensional Mapping (P3DM) in the Western Cameroon Highlands Ecoregion. The African Conservation Foundation (ACF) and the Environment and Rural Development Foundation (ERuDeF), supported by the Waterloo Foundation and Global Forest Watch conducted this project ([https://africanconservation.org/cameroon-s-first-participatory-3d-mapping-for-forest-monitoring-and-conservation-management/ ACF]).

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02305|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02305|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.9
|26
|26
|26.2
|27.2
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|2605
|2679
|2721
|2743
|2691
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|36.9
|29.4
|30.6
|27.1
|31.6
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.1
|7.1
|7.1
|8.1
|7.6
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4.5
|0.1
|4
|0.18
|2.5
|0.1
|2.5
|0.05
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|5.5
|100
|8
|100
|5
|100
|7.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|2
|0.56
|1
|0.8
|1
|1.93
|4
|1.31
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.6
|30
|0.61
|29
|0.6
|29
|0.64
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Rumpi_Hills.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Rumpi_Hills.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01560"></span>BirdLife International (2001) Important Bird Areas factsheet: Mount Rata and Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 05/01/2022.

<span id="R01561"></span>Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership (2020) Key Biodiversity Areas factsheet: Mount Rata and Rumpi Hills Forest Reserve. Extracted from the World Database of Key Biodiversity Areas. Developed by the Key Biodiversity Areas Partnership: BirdLife International, IUCN, American Bird Conservancy, Amphibian Survival Alliance, Conservation International, Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund, Global Environment Facility, Global Wildlife Conservation, NatureServe, Rainforest Trust, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, World Wildlife Fund and Wildlife Conservation Society. Downloaded from http://www.keybiodiversityareas.org/ on 05/01/2022.

<span id="R01562"></span>Mukete, B., Yujun, S., Etongo, D., Saeed, S., & Mannan, A. (2018). Assessing the drivers of land use change in the Rumpi hills forest protected area, Cameroon. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 37(6), 592-618. [https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2018.1449121 doi:10.1080/10549811.2018.1449121]

<span id="R02305"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-01-10

Rubi-Télé

2026-10-15T21:54:40Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[Rubi-Télé]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rubi-Télé?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rubi-Télé?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rubi-Télé?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rubi-Télé?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rubi-Télé?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|2.631336, 24.850447~[[Rubi-Télé]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Rubi-Télé.
* It has been estimated that 545 individuals occur in the site.
* The population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 9,080 km².
* Key threats to great apes are bushmeat hunting, artisanal mining, and a national road.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

The Rubi-Télé hunting domain is located in the Bas-Uélé province, in northern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The site was one of the first protected areas in the Belgian Congo, established as a Hunting Reserve in 1930, five years after the creation of [[Virunga National Park]] ([[#R01550|Mutombo et al. 2017]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|9,080 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 2.631336 , Lon: 24.850447
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Hunting Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|Unknown
|
|
|0.06
|545.0
|Rubi-Télé Hunting Domain
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01551|Plumptre et al. 2010]]
|
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

Artisanal mining has been established for over 20 years in Rubi-Télé, during which time the fauna has been substantially reduced by hunting. Encounter rate (nests/km)s of chimpanzees and other fauna were much lower in this region than in forests immediately to the north ([[#R01549|Hicks et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Invasion of artisanal-scale miners into the Rubi-Tele ([[#R01549|Hicks et al. 2010]], [[#R01548|Bisimwa et al. 2021]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2021)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The site is crossed by National Road Four (RN4) that connects Buta to Kisangani and other eastern DRC cities. This is a factor explaining the intensification of hunting and mining activities at the site ([[#R01548|Bisimwa et al. 2021]]).
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Bushmeat hunting, linked to mining activities ([[#R01549|Hicks et al. 2010]], [[#R01548|Bisimwa et al. 2021]]).
|2010-Ongoing (2021)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02304|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02304|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24.7
|25.9
|25.6
|26.2
|27.1
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1938
|1936
|1993
|1955
|1967
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|13.4
|18.3
|18.1
|19.4
|19.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|7.4
|7.2
|6.7
|6.9
|8.6
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Rubi-Télé'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|17.5
|0.03
|11
|0.03
|17
|0.03
|24.5
|0.04
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|3
|67.26
|2.5
|63.89
|10
|72.73
|13.5
|58.33
|-
|River flood
|1.25
|0.27
|2.5
|0.43
|2.5
|0.79
|5
|0.09
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.59
|30
|0.56
|29
|0.55
|29
|0.49
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Rubi-Tele.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Rubi-Télé]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Rubi-Tele.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Rubi-Télé]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01548"></span>Bisimwa, L., Musangu, E., Mampeta, S., Amundala, N., Sabongo, P., & Sonwa, D. J. (2021). Challenges on the valorisation of local knowledge: Preliminary assessments in the Rubi-Télé Hunting Area (DRC). ASC-TUFS Working Papers, (1), 203–216.

<span id="R01549"></span>Hicks, T. C., Darby, L., Hart, J., Swinkels, J., January, N., & Menken, S. (2010). Trade in orphans and bushmeat threatens one of The Democratic Republic of the Congo's most important populations of Eastern Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii). ''African Primates'', 7(1), 1-18. [http://www.primate-sg.org/african-primates-volume-7-1/ link]

<span id="R01550"></span>Mutombo, P., Nyundai, G., Malekani, A., Angoyo, R., Basa, O., Dudu, B., Amundala, N., Gambalemoke, S., Akaibe, J., Kambale, J. J., Bongo, G. N., & Ngbolua, K. N. (2017). Diversity of rodents and shrews in Rubi-Télé Hunting Domain in the territory of Buta, Bas Uélé Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. International Journal of Zoology Studies, 2(1), 89–95. [https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/baf3c3ba8da7bd82219bb9d7ede95f23231133a1 link]

<span id="R01551"></span>Plumptre, A. J., Rose, R., Nangendo, G., Williamson, E. A., Didier, K., Hart, J., Mulindahabi, F., Hicks, C., Griffin, B., Ogawa, H., Nixon, S., Pintea, L., Vosper, A., McClennan, M., Amsini, F., McNeilage, A., Makana, J. R., Kanamori, M., Hernandez, A., Piel, A., Stewart, F., Moore, J., Zamma, K., Nakamura, M., Kamenya, S., Idani, G., Sakamaki, T., Yoshikawa, M., Greer, D., Tranquilli, S., Beyers, R., Furuichi, T., Hashimoto, C., & Bennett, E. (2010). Eastern chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii): Status survey and conservation action plan 2010–2020. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group. [http://www.primate-sg.org/PDF/ECCAP.pdf link]

<span id="R02304"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2022-01-10

Rio Muni

2026-10-15T21:54:39Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Equatorial Guinea]] > [[Rio Muni]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rio_Muni?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rio_Muni?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rio_Muni?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rio_Muni?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Rio_Muni?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|1.700144, 10.472875~[[Rio Muni]]~''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''}}</div>
* Central chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'') & western lowland gorillas (''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'') are present in Rio Muni.
* It has been estimated that 11,097 (CI: 8,719–13,592) great apes occur in the site.
* The great ape population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 26,017 km².
* Key threats to great apes are extensive commercial hunting, expansion of roads, and human encroachment.
* Conservation activities are not documented.

= Site characteristics =

Río Muni, the mainland region of Equatorial Guinea, is bordered by Cameroon to the north, and Gabon to the east and south. The area covers 26,017 sq. km; vegetations largely consists of Guineo-Congolian rainforest, mangrove forests in the southwest estuary, riparian palm forests along the coast, and some inselbergs in the east ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).The region has rich faunal diversity that includes gorillas, chimpanzees, various monkeys, leopards, buffalo, antelope, elephants, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, and various snakes, including pythons ([https://www.britannica.com/place/Equatorial-Guinea/Plant-and-animal-life Britannica]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|-
|Area
|26,017 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 1.700144 , Lon: 10.472875
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

The estimated great ape population in 2011 was 11,097, including a maximum population of 7,824 chimpanzees and a minimum population of 3,273 gorillas ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' & ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla''
|2011
|
|
|
|11,097 (8,719-13,592)
|Río Muni
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]
|Survey effort: 233.94 km
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The expansion of roads across the region have facilitated heavy commercial hunting, which is in high demand with increasing population and wealth ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|In a 2013 study, proximity to cities and settlements were the strongest predictors of ape density, which decreased closer to human centres ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Great apes densities have been shown to negatively correlate with agricultural mosaic habitat ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Expansion of the road network across the region facilitates commercial hunting and deforestation ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Extensive commercial hunting and large urban bushmeat markets in the region ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).
|Ongoing (2013)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Forest concessions significantly increased since the discovery of oil reserves in the early 1990s; by 2001, forest concessions covered 1.7 million hectares ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).
|1990-Ongoing (2001)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

= Challenges =

Protected areas in Río Muni cover 15.4% of the country’s land, but there are limited law enforcement activities undertaken to manage and protect these areas ([[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]).

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|[[#R01547|Murai et al. 2013]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320705002223 Determinants of urban bushmeat consumption in Río Muni, Equatorial Guinea]

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02303|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02303|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|25.4
|26.5
|26.4
|26.7
|27.7
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|4288
|4376
|4330
|4486
|4372
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|34.9
|12
|9.7
|11.1
|10.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.8
|10.6
|10.8
|10.5
|11.1
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Rio Muni'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|2.5
|0.01
|6
|0.01
|5.5
|0.01
|9
|0.01
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|7
|100
|8.5
|100
|7
|100
|19.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|1.5
|2.03
|1.25
|5.65
|0.5
|1.05
|5
|5.3
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|0.5
|0.05
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.05
|0.5
|0.05
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Rio_Muni.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Rio Muni]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Rio_Muni.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Rio Muni]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01547"></span>Murai, M., Ruffler, H., Berlemont, A., Campbell, G., Esono, F., Agbor, A., …, & Kühl, H. S. (2013). Priority Areas for Large Mammal Conservation in Equatorial Guinea. ''PLoS ONE'', 8(9), e75024. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0075024 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075024]

<span id="R02303"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2021-01-14

RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)

2026-10-15T21:54:38Z

WikiEdit:

[[Central Africa]] > [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] > [[RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/RAFALE_(Refuge_Altitude_Forests_of_the_Albert_Lake_Escarpment)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/RAFALE_(Refuge_Altitude_Forests_of_the_Albert_Lake_Escarpment)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/RAFALE_(Refuge_Altitude_Forests_of_the_Albert_Lake_Escarpment)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/RAFALE_(Refuge_Altitude_Forests_of_the_Albert_Lake_Escarpment)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/RAFALE_(Refuge_Altitude_Forests_of_the_Albert_Lake_Escarpment)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|1.937869, 30.899338~[[RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)]]~''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''}}</div>
* Eastern chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'') are present in Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment.
* The population size is unknown.
* The population trend is unknown.
* The site covers approximately 500 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are human encroachment, habitat degradation and destruction, and hunting traps intended for other species.
* Conservation activities have focused on education and awareness raising, involvement of the local community in research and conservation activities.

= Site characteristics =

The site consists of forest fragments located along the Congolese Albertine Rift slope. It is known as the RAFALE landscape (Refuge Altitude Forest Fragments of the Albert Lake Escarpment) to distinguish it from the Ituri highlands, which have altitudes ranging from 1,700 m up to 2,455 m at Mount Aboro ([[#R01526|Meessen 1951]]). A vast area of the Ituri highlands is classified as an [http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/lendu-plateau-iba-congo-the-democratic-republic-of-the IBA] (code CD007, 410,000 ha, <8% protected - 2001 criteria met A1, 2 and 3) and [https://zeroextinction.org/site-identification/2018-global-aze-map/ Alliance For Zero Extinction] - based on existing KBA boundaries and due to the historical presence of the Lendu crombec (IUCN CR - [http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/lendu-crombec-sylvietta-chapini ''Sylvietta chapini'']) and the Lendu plateau clawed frog (IUCN CR - [http://www.edgeofexistence.org/species/lendu-plateau-clawed-frog/ ''Xenopus lenduensis'']). None of the fragments within the RAFALE landscape are currently protected.

The RAFALE landscape consists of a mosaic of 20 semi-deciduous montane forest fragments (>0.5km² each) comprising a total forested surface area of ±70km2 ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]). They form a string, which is oriented southwest-northeast along 80 km of steep slopes on the western side of Lake Albert, ranging from an elevation of 620 m at Lake Albert to 2,020 m above sea level on the highest ridge. Each of the fragments is a riverine gallery forest surrounded by open grassland savannah, fallow land and crop fields, with streams that flow into a central river that empties into Lake Albert. These forest fragments are characterized as high-altitude closed-canopy strips with a moderately dense understory (10-50 m horizontal visibility). Depending on the altitude, the average daily temperature varies from 17-25°C and the annual average precipitation ranges from 1,200-1,700 mm. A short rainy season, characterized by heavy rainfall, occurs between March and the end of May, and a long rainy season occurs between August to mid-November (Messen 1951).

Besides a large community of Eastern chimpanzees, named the Mbudha community, eight other primate species have been observed (direct observations, small mammal live trapping, camera trapping), cited here by decreasing frequency of observation: ''Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmannii'', ''Cercopithecus ascanius schmidti'', ''Papio anubis'', ''Lophocebus albigena johnstoni'', ''Piliocolobus oustaleti'' (Hart et al. 2019). It is possibly a hybrid zone for ''P.o. tephrosceles / oustaleti'' (Tom Struhsaker, pers. comm.), ''Chlorocebus pygerythrus'', ''Colobus guereza occidentalis'', and ''Galagoides cfr. thomasi'' (handled by chimpanzees , not known if eaten or actively hunted by the local chimpanzee community ([[#R01523|Hicks et al. 2019]]). Total estimated forest cover and suitable habitat for chimpanzees: ±70km2, of which ±20km2 have been explored with scientific objectives (preliminary inventory, habitat description, density estimation). Considering the mosaic of forest patches, shrubland, savanna and wetland on the shores of Lake Albert, the site covers approximately 500 sq.km ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]).

Other remarkable species thriving up to 2000 m include two species of pangolins (EN – IUCN; ''Phataginus tricuspis'' and ''P. tetradactyla''; ([[#R01524|Khwaja et al. 2019]])), a duiker (''Cephalophus rufilatus''), crested porcupine (''Hystrix cristata''), ''Heterohyrax brucei'', Jackson's mongoose ''Bdeogale jacksoni'', dwarf scaly-tailed squirrels (''Anomalurus pusillus''), elephant shrew (''Rhynchocyon sp.''), and least dwarf shrew (''Suncus infinitesimus''). The provisional full mammalian inventory consists of 60 species with 9 Primates, 9 Carnivora, 1 Afrosoricida, 2 Cetartiodactyla, 1 Hyracoidea, 2 Pholidota, 19 Rodentia, 6 Eulipotyphla, 1 Macroscelidae and 10 Chiroptera ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]). These records represent new locations for most species as well as known geographic range limits.

'''Table 1. Basic site information for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|-
|Area
|500 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 1.937869 , Lon: 30.899338
|-
|Type of site
|Non-protected area (Community Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Shrubland, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Savanna, Rocky areas (inland cliffs, mountain peaks)
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]
<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Chimpanzees_with_galago.jpg | 450px | thumb| none |Mbudha chimpanzees. Female holding a galago in her mouth © Caroline Thirion, 2017]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File: Mbudha_chimpanzees_with_galago.jpg | 450px | thumb| none | Mbudha chimpanzees © Caroline Thirion, 2017]] </li></ul></div>
= Ape status =

Between 2015 and 2017, preliminary surveys were conducted in and around three fragments named Tsili-Bai forest (or FG1), Rogo-Zalu forest (FG2) and Dolokpa-Dzoo forest (FG3) covering ±18.15 km2 ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]). The presence of chimpanzees in relict forest fragments of the Congolese Albertine Rift region — determined in November 2015 based on informal discussion with local inhabitants — was unexpected. In March, June, August and September 2016, and in April 2017, a total of 14 unplanned pilot walks following the path of least resistance were conducted ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]). In August 2016 and April 2017, a structured investigation was carried out to estimate the density of chimpanzees in three forest fragments and the nest encounter rates ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al., 2021]]). Based on the identifications of individuals made over the course of the study period (2016-2017), the minimum size of the Mbudha community was determined to be 42 weaned chimpanzees and 10 infants. A total of 283 chimpanzee nests were recorded (123 along transects and 160 on the pilot walks). The mean number of nests per kilometer was 4.3 (min=0 and max=14.3) and 18.4 (min=0 and max=43.6) on pilot walks and transect surveys respectively ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]). Using the truncated dataset of 117 nests recorded along the six transects we surveyed between 1,100 and 1,700 m altitude, we estimated a density of 4.62 weaned chimpanzee individuals per km² (Uniform simple polynomial). This chimpanzee community was named “Mbudha”, which in Bbaledha (Badha or Lendu) language means “the water of the chimpanzees”.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2017
|
|
|
|
|FG3
|Opportunistic observation
|
|[[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]
|Recorded 2 hr of live observation. First live observation of 18 members of the Mbudha community.
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2016-2017
|
|4.3
|
|
|FG1, FG2 and FG3
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]
|Preliminary surveys in FG1, FG2 and FG3. Survey effort: 37.6 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2016-2017
|
|18.4
|
|
|FG1, FG2 and FG3
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]
|Survey effort: 6.7 km.
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii''
|2015
|
|
|
|
|FG1
|Interviews, Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]
|No survey, first acoustic detection of chimpanzees
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]
[[File:Map_RAFALE.jpg | 400px | thumb| none |General location of the study site labeled RAFALE in eastern DR Congo, Mount Hoyo, the Ituri highlands, Mount Aboro of the Blue mountain with inset map of the contours of the three explored fragments between 2015 and 2017 (Laudisoit et a. 2021]]
= Threats =

The Mbudha chimpanzee community is not the only one surviving along the Lake Albert escarpment as reported by locals, but recurrent militia’s incursions in the Djugu and Mahagi territories have impeded the exploration of western forest fragments. As local people do not eat nor hunt chimpanzees, which they consider “as close to human beings that they could live in the village“, the major threats are population growth (natural and internally displaced), habitat degradation and destruction, mainly due to poverty and ignorance of the forestry code causing illegal logging and slash-and-burn agriculture. Huyghe (2017) estimated that about 1.2% of the natural habitat and forest cover is lost each year over the three explored fragments. While chimpanzees are not targeted by snares, snare mutilations have been observed on 12 individuals caught on camera trap footage, and in 2020, a young chimpanzee was found dead with a snare around its neck.

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|10 Geological events
|10.3 Avalanches/landslides
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Destruction of suitable chimpanzee nesting sites following a landslide ([[#R01527|News24 2017]]).
|2017
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Habitat loss due to expansion of slash-and-burn agriculture ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]).
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Chimpanzees are injured or killed by traps that are intended for other animals ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]).
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Charcoal production ([[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]).
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|Other
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|
|Unknown
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|Other
|Present (unknown severity)
|
|Unknown
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|Other
|Present (unknown severity)
|
|Unknown
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

The Mbudha team is sensitizing the population around the fragments about the potential by-catch of chimpanzees by their hunting techniques and are encouraging smaller and alternative traps use in the forested area.

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.4 Farm more intensively and effectively in selected areas and spare more natural land
|Encourage and develop a no-cost local organic manure, introduce agro forestry and soil stabilization with rapid growth trees (e.g. ''Acacia mearnsii'').
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Includes citizen science project (cybertracker), create a pedagogic space within the local institution, develop educational activities about zoochory with local institutions and schools, supervision of local MSc students.
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.2 Involve local community in ape research and conservation management
|Local community members trained in ecological monitoring, placing camera traps and gathering data.Establish a permanent base and office in the local higher institution. The Mbudha garden is based on zoochory by animals – local tree nursery based on seeds collected in vertebrate feces.
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.4 Create natural habitat patches (including corridors)
|Writing of a conservation plan for a community managed reserve.
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|7 Economic & other incentives
|7.2 Provide non-monetary benefits to local communities for sustainably managing their forest and its wildlife (e.g., better education, infrastructure development)
|30 beehives have been installed, which provide sustainable funding for the Mbudha team, the health centers of the villages located around the forest, and the conservation project including compensation for forest protection to local chiefs.
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.1 Run research project and ensure permanent human presence at site
|Chimpanzee research
|
|Ongoing (2021)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

Frequent incursions of unidentified militias in the region preventing access to the study site (road blocks) or discouraging funders and researchers to invest in a long term project.

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|Laudisoit pers. comm.
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.5 Anticipated disadvantages/costs created by conservation activities (e.g., restricted access/resource use)
|Laudisoit pers. comm.
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|Laudisoit pers. comm.
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|4.1 Lack of law enforcement
|Laudisoit pers. comm.
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Laudisoit and local colleagues (the Mbudha team) are seeking support to establish a permanent research site in the area and, with the support of the local communities, are developing income generating activities to support forest protection. They hope to attract other research projects on the Congolese Albertine Rift and in the Ituri highlands where other scientifically undocumented population of apes and primates are known and reported by locals. Research is ongoing and Anne Laudisoit is currently supported by a National Geographic Explorer’s grant (NGS-61178C-19).

[[File:MbudhaApicol.png | 500px | thumb| none |Mbudha honey © Anne Laudisoit]]
= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Making ground nests
|
|
|
|[[#R01525|Laudisoit et al. 2021]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Rock licking
|
|
|
|Laudisoit pers. comm.
|
|
|
|-
|
|Meat eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01523|Hicks et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02302|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02302|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|21.4
|22.5
|22.7
|22.9
|23.9
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1187
|1192
|1273
|1118
|1375
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|19.8
|21.5
|27
|25.4
|24.1
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.6
|7.6
|7.5
|7.6
|12.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|2
|1.4
|3
|0.98
|2
|1.38
|4.5
|1.47
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|River flood
|1
|0.16
|5.5
|15.64
|0.5
|0.06
|5
|19.23
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|1.16
|30
|1.31
|29
|1.21
|29
|0.93
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_RAFALE.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_RAFALE.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in RAFALE (Refuge Altitude Forests of the Albert Lake Escarpment)]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

[https://vimeo.com/303669387 Mbudha, in the chimpanzees’ footsteps]

[https://www.facebook.com/MbudhaChimp/ Facebook Mbudha Chimps]

[https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.403 Chimpanzees surviving in a fragmented high-altitude forest landscape of the Congolese Albertine Rift]

[https://www.naturalsciences.be/en/news/item/20866 New Population of Eastern Chimpanzees Discovered in Remote Congolese Mountain Forests]

= References =

<span id="R01522"></span>Hart, J., Maisels, F., Oates, J.F., Laudisoit, A., Hicks, T.C., & Struhsaker, T.T. (2019). Piliocolobus oustaleti The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019.

<span id="R01523"></span>Hicks, T.C., Menken, S.B.J., Laudisoit, A.,& Hart, J. (2019). Chapter 1. Handling and Consumption of Vertebrate Prey by Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Northern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Chimpanzee Behaviour: Recent Understandings from Captivity and the Forest Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA USA. Friends of Washoe, Ellensburg, WA, USA. : Mary Lee Abshire Jensvold, PhD (Editor). ; 2019. p. 218.

<span id="R01524"></span>Khwaja, H., Buchan, C., Wearn, O. R., Bahaa-el-din, L., Bantlin, D., Bernard, H., …, & Challender, D. W. S. (2019). Pangolins in global camera trap data: Implications for ecological monitoring. ''Global Ecology and Conservation'', 20, e00769. [https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00769 doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00769]

<span id="R01525"></span>Laudisoit, A., Huyghe, P., Willie, J., Ndjoku, B., Scholier, T., Dz'na, J., …, & Verheyen, E. (2021). Chimpanzees surviving in a fragmented high‐altitude forest landscape of the Congolese Albertine Rift. ''Conservation Science and Practice'', 3(6). [https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.403 doi:10.1111/csp2.403]

<span id="R01526"></span>Meessen, J.M.T. (1951). Monographie de l'Ituri (Nord-est du Congo belge) : histoire, géographie, économie. In: Direction de l'agriculture df, de l'élevage et de la colonisation, 1951., editor. Congo (Democratic Republic): Belgium. Ministère des affaires africaines. p. 305.

<span id="R01527"></span>News24. (2017, August 25). Up to 250 feared dead in DRC mudslide. https://www.news24.com/news24/africa/news/up-to-250-feared-dead-in-drc-mudslide-20170825

<span id="R02302"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Dr. Anne Laudisoit''' Date:''' 2021-11-01

Port Gauthier Classified Forest

2026-10-15T21:54:37Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Côte d'Ivoire]] > [[Port Gauthier Classified Forest]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Port_Gauthier_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Port_Gauthier_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Port_Gauthier_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Port_Gauthier_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Port_Gauthier_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|5.128051, -5.456440~[[Port Gauthier Classified Forest]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* West African chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') have been extirpated from Port Gauthier Classified Forest.
* This site has a total surface area of 39.66 km².
* The site faces threats from the conversion of forest into plantations.
* Conservation activities include awareness-raising and tree-planting.

= Site characteristics =

The Port Gauthier Classified Forest is Category 3 (highest category of forest degradation by OIPR). It is under the authority of SODEFOR. This forest is located in the southwestern coastal area of Fresco department. The presence of elephants has been reported in some forest relics (Soiret pers. comm. 2025).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|39.66 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 5.128051 , Lon: -5.456440
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Classified Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|Absent
|
|
|
|Port Gauthier Classified Forest
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01499|Campbell 2008]]
|
|CIV0063
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1989-1990
|Present
|
|
|
|Port Gauthier Classified Forest
|Unknown
|
|[[#R01502|Marchesi et al. 1995]] as cited by [[#R01501|Kormos et al. 2003]]
|Tracks were found.
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Presence of several plantations, including, cocoa, coffee, and rubber (Soiret pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Present (unknown severity)
|Signs of grazing found in the site ([[#R01500|Gonedele et al. 2020]]).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|Present (unknown severity)
|Poaching present in the forest. Poaching may have declined between 2012 and 2016 due to patrols taking place, but also the Ebola outbreak ([[#R01500|Gonedele et al. 2020]]).
|Ongoing (2020)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Logging present in the forest ([[#R01500|Gonedele et al. 2020]]).
|Ongoing (2020)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Anti-poaching patrols conducted ([[#R01500|Gonedele et al. 2020]]).
|SODEFOR
|2012-2016
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|Awareness raising activities initiated by private individuals (Soiret pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Tree planting initiated by private individuals (Soiret pers. comm. 2025).
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02301|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02301|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|26.6
|27.6
|27.5
|27.7
|28.7
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1429
|1365
|1452
|1390
|1427
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|28.8
|28.7
|28.8
|29.1
|32.5
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.9
|7.3
|7.1
|5.9
|8.2
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Port Gauthier Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|4.5
|2.19
|1.5
|1.64
|1
|0.98
|3
|2.59
|-
|Drought
|1.5
|52.08
|0.75
|55.36
|1.25
|50
|0.75
|25
|-
|Heatwave
|17.5
|88.24
|18.5
|97.22
|21.5
|98
|18.5
|93.83
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|1
|0.02
|1.5
|0.14
|1.5
|0.13
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0.5
|1.19
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.31
|30
|0.32
|29
|0.32
|29
|0.32
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Port_Gauthier_CF.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Port Gauthier Classified Forest]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Port_Gauthier_CF.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Port Gauthier Classified Forest]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01499"></span>Campbell, G. (2008). Rapport préliminaire sur les parcs nationaux et les forêts classées inventoriés en Côte d’Ivoire. Rapport présenté à la direction de l’OIPR et de la SODEFOR. Unpublished report.

<span id="R01500"></span>Gonedelé, S., Bitty, E. A., Yao, A. K., & McGraw, W. S. (2020). Foot patrols enhance conservation efforts in threatened forest reserves of coastal Côte d’Ivoire. Tropical Conservation Science, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1940082919872637

<span id="R01501"></span>Kormos, R., Boesch, C., Bakarr, M. I., & Butynski, T. M. (Eds.). (2003). West African chimpanzees: Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120514150708/http://data.iucn.org/dbtw-wpd/edocs/2003-059.pdf link]

<span id="R01502"></span>Marchesi, P., Marchesi, N., Fruth, B., & Boesch, C. (1995). Census and distribution of chimpanzees in Côte D’Ivoire. ''Primates'', 36(4), 591-607. [https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02382880 doi:10.1007/bf02382880]

<span id="R02301"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Serge Soiret''' Date:''' 2025-05-27

Pic de Fon Classified Forest

2026-10-15T21:54:36Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Republic of Guinea]] > [[Pic de Fon Classified Forest]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Pic_de_Fon_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Pic_de_Fon_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Pic_de_Fon_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Pic_de_Fon_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Pic_de_Fon_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|8.55, -8.88~[[Pic de Fon Classified Forest]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Pic de Fon Classified Forest.
* It has been estimated that 75 (CI: 21-246) individuals occur in the forest.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 256 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are hunting and habitat degradation due to agricultural activities and fires, as well as exploration for mining.
* To mitigate negative impacts by proposed mining activities a conservation action plan was written in 2010 but it is unclear which activities were implemented.
* Due to its diverse habitat types Pic de Fon is very rich in biodiversity.

= Site characteristics =

Pic de Fon Classified Forest is located in southern Guinea at the southern end of the Simandou range and is part of the Greater Nimba Highlands. It has a size of 256 km² and was designated a classified forest in 1953 ([[#R01498|UNEP-WCMC & IUCN 2019]]). The altitude of Pic de Fon ranges from 600 to 1,656 m and is the second highest mountain in Guinea ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). As it lies at the transition between forest and savanna zones it features a diversity of habitats including montane grassland and forest (gallery and ravine forests), semi-evergreen lowland forest (primary and secondary), savanna, rivers, and anthropogenic habitat such as plantations (coffee, cocoa, banana), and farmbush ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). This diversity of habitats leads to a diversity of plant and animal species which were surveyed in a rapid biological assessment in 2002. In this assessment 409 plant, 32 amphibian, 12 reptile, 233 bird, 21 bat, 40 katydid (bush crikets), 17 small mammal, 13 primate and 39 large mammal species were recorded, including species new to science and endemic species ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). Regarding primates the following primate species were recorded: western chimpanzee (''Pan troglodytes verus''), potto (''Perodicticus potto''), Demidoff ’s galago (''Galagoides demidoff''), sooty mangabey (''Cercocebus atys atys''), Campbell’s guenon (''Cercopithecus campbelli campbelli''), lesser spot-nosed guenon (''Cercopithecus petaurista buettikoferi''), greater spot-nosed guenon (''Cercopithecus nicitans''), Diana monkey (''Cercopithecus diana diana'', [[#R01493|Herbinger & Tounkara 2004]]). In a conservation priority setting workshop in 2001, Pic de Fon was identified as having important habitat types for amphibians and reptiles ([[#R01487|Bakarr et al. 2001]]). To inform the extension of the protected area network [[#R01489|Brugière and Kormos (2009)]] identified 16 Key Biodiversity Areas across Guinea based on the occurrence of globally threatened large and medium-sized mammals, among which Pic de Fon Classified Forest ranked eight.

Pic de Fon is known to have large iron ore deposits and mining exploration activities began in 1997. While the Guinean government granted a mining concession in 2006, actual mining activities have not yet started and if or when these would go ahead is unclear ([[#R02299|Kormos et al. 2014]], [[#R01496|Rio Tinto 2018]]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|256 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 8.55 , Lon: -8.88
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Classified Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist montane forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Grassland, Savanna, Wetlands (lakes, rivers, streams, bogs, marshes), Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

Rebecca Kormos confirmed the presence of chimpanzees in Pic de Fon based on interviews with hunters ([[#R01492|Ham 1998]]). As part of a rapid biological assessment line transect surveys were conducted by [[#R01493|Herbinger and Tounkara (2004)]] and they estimated the size of the chimpanzee population at around 75 weaned individuals. In 2007 a further survey was implemented as part of the Simandou mining project that estimated the chimpanzee population at between 36-46 individuals, but details are not publicly available ([[#R02299|Kormos et al. 2014]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|
|
|
|36-46
|Pic de Fon
|Unknown
|
|Unknown
|Original source unknown, cited in Kormos et al. 2014
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2002
|
|6.80
|0.64
|75 (21-246)
|Pic de Fon
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01493|Herbinger & Tounkara 2004]]
|Total survey effort: 17.2 km
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1997
|Present
|
|
|
|Pic de Fon
|Interviews
|
|[[#R01492|Ham 1998]]
|Interview of hunters
|GIN0019, GIN0021
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

A rapid biological assessment in 2002 identified 24 villages in the vicinity of Pic de Fon Classified Forest and concluded that villagers rely strongly on the forest as a source of food (e.g., wildlife, fish, fruits), water, wood for fuel and construction, and medicinal plants ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). Hunting was identified as the biggest threat to chimpanzees and wildlife in general ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). Hunting camps were also found inside the classified forest. 35-40% of the forest are impacted by the cultivation of subsistence and cash crops, including coffee ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). Fires are set intentionally to clear land for agriculture.

A further concern to chimpanzees is the “Simandou Project”, an iron-ore mining concession held by Rio Tinto and Chinalco (Aluminium Corporation of China, [[#R02299|Kormos et al. 2014]]). Exploration for mining of the iron ore started in 1997 and the mining concession was granted in 2006 by the Guinean government. Mining exploration can cause noise pollution and the presence of more people in the forest further disturbs chimpanzees ([[#R01493|Herbinger & Tounkara 2004]]). Roads were build as part of the mining exploration, indirectly affecting chimpanzees by increasing accessibility by humans and possibly hunting pressure. Part of the concession area overlaps with the forest of Pic de Fon (Konate pers. comm. 2023).

The 2002 survey of Pic de Fon found hunting pressure and agricultural activities to be most prevalent in lower altitudes and no chimpanzee nests were found below 900 m altitude. As mining activities will be in higher altitudes this would likely strongly impact chimpanzees in their core habitat ([[#R01493|Herbinger & Tounkara 2004]]).

In connection with the mining project concerns have also been raised in relation to social issues, environmental damage by pollution and changes in the hydrology, and corruption ([[#R01491|Environmental Justice Atlas 2019]], [[#R01488|Boyes 2014]] ).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|35-40% of the forest are impacted by agricultural activities ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Cattle herding (Konate pers. Comm. 2023).
|Ongoing (2023)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Exploration for mining since 1997 ([[#R01493|Herbinger and Tounkara 2004]]). Rio Tinto concession area overlaps with the site, and artisanal mining ongoing (Konate pers. Comm. 2023).
|1997-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|4 Transportation & service corridors
|4.1 Roads & railroads
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Roads build for mining exploration ([[#R01493|Herbinger and Tounkara 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Identified as the most prevalent threat ([[#R01493|Herbinger and Tounkara 2004]]). Hunting is ongoing (Konate pers. Comm. 2023).
|2004-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.2 Gathering terrestrial plants
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Collection of fruits and medicinal plants ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Wood collected for fuel and construction ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Fire are set for clearing areas for agricultural use ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|-
|9 Pollution
|9.6 Energy emissions
|Present (unknown severity)
|Noise pollution during mining exploration ([[#R01493|Herbinger and Tounkara 2004]]).
|Ongoing (2004)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

One outcome of the rapid biological assessment conducted as part of an alliance between Conservation International and Rio Tinto Mining & Exploration in 2002, was an initial biodiversity action plan for Pic de Fon Classified Forest ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). The conservation objectives set out in this plan focus on biodiversity data and monitoring, regulating resource-use, awareness and capacity building, and strengthening the legal protection of the forest ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). However, it is not clear whether any of these activities have been implemented.

To mitigate negative impacts by the development of the iron ore mine a community-based management plan was developed as part of a collaboration between the Guinean government, Rio Tinto and local communities in 2010 ([[#R01497|TBC 2019]]). As part of the conservation action plan Pic de Fon was divided into three zones: a protected area, a production area that can be used by local communities and the mining area ([[#R01490|Diakite et al. 2010]]). Different activities were planned, including regulating hunting and usage of non-timber forest products, control of bushfires, reforestation ([[#R01497|TBC 2019]]). However, as the development of the mine is not progressing and Rio Tinto is trying to sell its share, it is not clear if any of these activities have actually been implemented.

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|1 Development impact mitigation
|1.8 Use set-aside areas of natural habitat (e.g., mining, logging, agricultural areas)
|Conservation action plan specifies a zone that should be fully protected ([[#R01490|Diakite et al. 2010]])
|
|2010
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|Designated as Classified Forest in 1953 ([[#R01498|UNEP-WCMC and IUCN 2019]])
|
|1953-Ongoing (2023)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Planting of trees to create a corridor between Pic de Fon and another forest (Konate pers. Comm. 2023).
|
|Ongoing (2023)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

The lack of capacity among regional actors, including government agencies, local communities and NGOs has been noted as an impediment, for example to implement law enforcement ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]). Civil unrest, and conflict on land tenure were also mentioned as conservation impediments ([[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]).

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|1.4 Conflict on land tenure
|[[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.1 Lack of capacity/training
|[[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|6.3 Civil unrest/war
|[[#R01495|McCullough 2004]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

As detailed above surveys on chimpanzees have been implemented ([[#R01492|Ham 1998]], [[#R01493|Herbinger & Tounkara 2004]], [[#R02299|Kormos et al. 2014]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02300|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02300|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|24
|25.3
|25.1
|25.3
|26.5
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1802
|1817
|1845
|1868
|1936
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|40.5
|42
|44
|43.6
|47
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|5.5
|9.2
|8.5
|9.9
|10.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Pic de Fon Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|6.5
|0.19
|3.5
|0.19
|6
|0.19
|14.5
|0.19
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|6
|100
|6.5
|100
|6
|100
|7.5
|100
|-
|River flood
|1
|0.09
|1
|1.11
|1.5
|1.07
|3.5
|0.71
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.9
|30
|0.97
|29
|0.96
|29
|0.94
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Pic_de_Fon.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Pic de Fon Classified Forest]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Pic_de_Fon.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Pic de Fon Classified Forest]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01487"></span>Bakarr M et al. 2001. in IUCN 2008. From forest to the sea: biodiversity connections from Guinea to Togo. Conservation priority setting workshop. Washington D.C., USA: Conservation International

<span id="R01488"></span>Boyes S. 2014. Rio Tinto Simandou: Exporting Iron Mountains. National Geographic. 27 January 2014. [https://blog.nationalgeographic.org/2014/01/27/rio-tinto-simandou-exporting-iron-mountains-part-1-of-2/ blog.nationalgeographic.org]

<span id="R01489"></span>Brugière D, Kormos R. 2009. Review of the protected area network in Guinea, West Africa, and recommendations for new sites for biodiversity conservation, Biodiversity and Conservation, 18:847 [https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-008-9508-z doi:10.1007/s10531-008-9508-z]

<span id="R01490"></span>Diakite et al. 2010. Plan d’aménagement et plan de gestion de la Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon 2010- 2030. [http://www.thebiodiversityconsultancy.com/es/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Plan-dAmenagement-de-la-Foret-Classee-du-Pic-de-Fon_Version-Approuvee_ResolutionDiminuee-1.pdf www.thebiodiversityconsultancy.com]

<span id="R01491"></span>Environmental Justice Atlas. 2019. Iron Mine on Simandou Mountain Range, Mine de Fer, Guinée, [https://ejatlas.org/conflict/simandoun-mine ejatlas.org]

<span id="R01492"></span>Ham R. 1998. Nationwide chimpanzee census and large mammal survey Republic of Guinea. Projet de conservation des chimpanzés en Guineée. Report to the European Union.

<span id="R01493"></span>Herbinger I, Tounkara EO. 2004. A rapid survey of primates in the Simandou Range, Pic de Fon, Guinea, in McCullough (ed) A Rapid Biological Assessment of the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon, Simandou Range, Southeastern Republic of Guinea. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 35. Conservation International, Washington, DC.

<span id="R01494"></span>Kormos R et al. 2004. Great apes and biodiversity offset projects in Africa: the case for national offset strategies. Plos One 9(11): e111671, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111671

<span id="R01495"></span>McCullough J. 2004. A Rapid Biological Assessment of the Forêt Classée du Pic de Fon, Simandou Range, Southeastern Republic of Guinea. RAP Bulletin of Biological Assessment 35. Conservation International, Washington, DC.

<span id="R01496"></span>Rio Tinto. 2018. Rio Tinto update on Simandou. [https://www.riotinto.com/documents/181029_Rio_Tinto_update_on_Simandou.pdf Press release from 29 October 2018]

<span id="R01497"></span>TBC. 2019. Rio Tinto Simandou, Guinea: Pic de Fon Forêt Classée [https://www.thebiodiversityconsultancy.com/map/simandou-2/ www.thebiodiversityconsultancy.com]

<span id="R01498"></span>UNEP-WCMC, IUCN. 2019. Protected Planet: The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA), Cambridge, UK: UNEP-WCMC and IUCN Online: [https://www.protectedplanet.net/29465 www.protectedplanet.net] [https://web.archive.org/web/20190919232508/https://www.protectedplanet.net/lagoas-de-cufada-natural-park link]

<span id="R02299"></span>Kormos, R., Kormos, C. F., Humle, T., Lanjouw, A., Rainer, H., Victurine, R., …, & Williamson, E. A. (2014). Great Apes and Biodiversity Offset Projects in Africa: The Case for National Offset Strategies. ''PLoS ONE'', 9(11), 1-14. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0111671 doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111671]

<span id="R02300"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2023-10-02

Outamba-Kilimi National Park

2026-10-15T21:54:35Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Sierra Leone]] > [[Outamba-Kilimi National Park]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Outamba-Kilimi_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Outamba-Kilimi_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Outamba-Kilimi_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Outamba-Kilimi_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Outamba-Kilimi_National_Park?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|9.73, -12.07~[[Outamba-Kilimi National Park]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* Western chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') are present in Outamba-Kilimi National Park.
* It has been estimated that 1,020 (CI: 658-1,596) individuals occur in the site.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* This site has a total size of 1,109 km².
* The key threat to chimpanzees is habitat destruction caused by intentional burning for agricultural activities and hunting, and mining.
* Reforestation, law enforcement, awereness raising, and ecotourism are the main conservation interventions that have been implemented at the site.

= Site characteristics =

Situated in the north of Sierra Leone, Outamba-Kilimi National Park is divided into two blocks: Outamba (741 km²) and Kilimi (368 km²) ([[#R01477|BirdLife International 2019]]). In the 1980s, with support from the IUCN and WWF, Geza Teleki, a primatologist and conservationist, was a driving force behind the establishment of Outamba-Kilimi National Park, which was finally declared as such in 1995 ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]], [[#R01480|Munro 2015]]). In addition to the western chimpanzee, the site is home to forest elephants (''Loxodonta cyclotis''), Western red colobus monkeys (''Piliocolobus badius''), pygmy hippopotamus (''Choeropsis liberiensis''), leopards (''Panthera pardus''), and forest buffalos ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). With at least 256 bird species, the site is also an Important Bird Area ([http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/outamba-kilimi-national-park-iba-sierra-leone BirdLife International 2019]).

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|1,109 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 9.73 , Lon: -12.07
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (National Park)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical dry forest, Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Savanna, Agricultural land, Urban areas, Subtropical/tropical heavily degraded former forest
|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

The population size was estimated at 1,020 chimpanzees during a nationwide survey in 2010 ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Due to a lack of survey data, the population trend is unknown. Chimpanzee densities are higher in Outamba than in Kilimi ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|1.9 (0.61-6.41)
|0.27 (0.08-0.90)
|70 (22-246)
|Kilimi
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|
|0.97 (0.62-1.51)
|1020 (658-1596)
|Outamba-Kilimi
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2010
|
|8.9 (6.71-11.83)
|1.21 (0.78-1.88)
|950 (615-1472)
|Outamba
|Line transects
|
|[[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1989
|
|
|
|200-300
|Outamba
|Unknown
|
|Alp 1989 as cited by [[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|The population size was thought to be as high as 600-700
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|1983
|
|
|0.3
|49-60
|Kilimi
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|Harding 1984 as cited by [[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|Reconnaissance walk
|SLE0002, SLE0003<div class="mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" data-expandtext="+13 more" data-collapsetext="less">SLE0004, SLE0014, SLE0015, SLE0017, SLE0018, SLE0021, SLE0024, SLE0025, SLE0026, SLE0029, SLE0032, SLE0036, SLE0037</div>
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

The export and trade of wild animals, especially chimpanzees, emerged as a lucrative enterprise in Sierra Leone in the 1920s ([[#R01480|Munro 2015]]). Two prominent wildlife dealers, Franz Sitter and Suleiman Mansaray, exported approximately 2,000 chimpanzees in the 1970s alone ([[#R01480|Munro 2015]]). After Outamba and Kilimi were proposed as game reserves in 1965, Franz Sitter intensified hunting to take as much wildlife as possible from these areas before they could be protected ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). However, there are no signs of an ongoing chimpanzee trade.

Nowadays, the biggest threat to chimpanzees is habitat destruction caused by illegal mining and the intentional burning of areas. Hunting signs are present in both Outamba and Kilimi, indicating that poaching is an ongoing threat ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Villages are found within the park, especially throughout the Kilimi section of the park, where cattle grazing, farming, and timber extraction also occur ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). In the Outamba section, larger areas seem to be unaffected by humans than in Kilimi ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]).

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|1 Residential & commercial development
|1.1 Residential areas
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|A number of villages is located in both sections of the park ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|Low (up to 30% of population affected)
|Small-scale subsistence farming and palm plantations (Kaiser pers. obs.).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.3 Livestock farming & ranching
|Present (unknown severity)
|The northern part of Kilimi is used for cattle grazing ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|3 Energy production & mining
|3.2 Mining & quarrying
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Illegal gold mining activities in Outamba ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Reports of illegal mining in the park (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|High hunting intensity in the late 1960s and 1970s; hunting signs are still frequently found in the park ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Hunting reported as ongoing in 2025 (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|Present (unknown severity)
|Timber extraction in the northern part of Kilimi ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]). Reported as ongoing in 2025 (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|2010-Ongoing (2025)
|-
|6 Human intrusions & disturbance
|6.2 War, civil unrest & military exercises
|Present (unknown severity)
|The park’s infrastructure was destroyed and conservation activities were brought to a halt due to civil war ([[#R01480|Munro 2015]]).
|1991-2002
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.1 Fire & fire suppression
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Annual burning affects a large proportion of the park ([[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]).
|Ongoing (2010)
|-
|7 Natural system modifications
|7.2 Dams & water management/use
|Present (unknown severity)
|Signs of dam inside the park used for fishing activities (Kaiser pers. obs. 2019).
|Ongoing (2019)
|-
|8 Invasive & other problematic species, genes & diseases
|8.2 Problematic native species
|Medium (30-70% of population affected)
|Widespread zones of elephant grass (''Pennisetum purpureum'') that degrade the forest edge (Kaiser pers. obs.).
|Ongoing (2019)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Park guards funded by the government are stationed around the park to monitor and deter poaching and illegal mining. The site is a priority zone for the [https://rmportal.net/projects/archive/steward-program STEWARD program], which is a forest conservation and sustainable livelihoods program supported by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the United States Forest Service / International Programs (USFS/IP) ([[#R01483|WCF 2015]]). The https://panverus.org/about/ Pan Verus Project] also aims to address the needs of local communities and find ways to provide sustainable agriculture practices and alternative livelihoods, for example, through tourism.

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|2 Counter-wildlife crime
|2.3 Conduct regular anti-poaching patrols
|Government funded park guards stationed around park to monitor illegal poaching and mining (Kaiser pers. obs.)
|National Protected Area Authority
|Ongoing (2025)
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.1 Educate local communities about apes and sustainable use
|The Pan Verus Project founded the Outamba Kilimi National Park Education Centre and Community Library to promote awareness of the park's biodiversity (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary
|2019
|-
|4 Education & awareness
|4.5 Implement multimedia campaigns using theatre, film, print media, discussions
|The Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF) organized an awareness raising theater play, which toured around the site ([[#R01482|WCF 2011]]); discussion and showing camera trap images (PanAfrican Programme).
|
|2010, 2016, 2017
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|The site is a national park since 1995 ([[#R01480|Munro 2015]]).
|
|1995-Ongoing (2026)
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.6 Habitat restoration
|Tree planting initiatives were put in place to restore the ecosystem and the site (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, EUCORD
|2024
|-
|8 Permanent presence
|8.2 Run tourist projects and ensure permanent human presence at site
|OKNP offers guided safaris, boat tours, and forest walks, allowing visitors to experience wildlife in its natural habitat (Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025).
|National Park Association
|2020
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.5 Lack of equipment/transportation
|[[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|2.7 Lack of infrastructure
|Lahai Keifala pers. comm. 2025, [https://www.sierraeyemagazine.com/tourism-navigating-opportunities-amidst-challenges/ Sierra Eye Magazine]
|2024
|-
|3 Engaged community
|3.1 General lack of community engagement or support
|[[#R01478|Brncic et al. 2010]]
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

Outamba-Kilimi was a temporary research site for the [http://panafrican.eva.mpg.de/english/team.php PanAfrican Programme] based at the Max-Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Algae scooping
|
|
|
|[[#R01479|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant dipping
|
|
|
|[[#R01479|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Ant eating
|
|
|
|[[#R01479|Kühl et al. 2019]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Stepping sticks
|
|
|
|[[#R01476|Alp 1997]]
|
|
|
|-
|
|Seat sticks
|
|
|
|[[#R01476|Alp 1997]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02298|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02298|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|27
|28.1
|27.9
|28.2
|29.4
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1969
|1889
|1950
|1978
|1931
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|62.3
|56.9
|55.8
|63.1
|61.2
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|4.5
|5.3
|5.1
|5.7
|5.8
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Outamba-Kilimi National Park'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|0.2
|2
|0.2
|0
|0
|7
|0.23
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|4.5
|100
|4
|100
|1.5
|100
|6
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0
|1.25
|2.2
|1
|0.42
|2.5
|1.46
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0.5
|0.16
|1
|0.39
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|1.14
|30
|0.79
|29
|0.93
|29
|1.05
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Outamba.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Outamba-Kilimi National Park]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Outamba.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Outamba-Kilimi National Park]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01476"></span>Alp, R. (1997). “Stepping‐sticks” and “seat‐sticks”: New types of tools used by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in Sierra Leone. ''American Journal of Primatology'', 41(1), 45-52. [https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(1997)41:1<45::aid-ajp4>3.3.co;2-m doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2345(1997)41:1<45::aid-ajp4>3.3.co;2-m]

<span id="R01477"></span>BirdLife International. 2019. Important Bird Areas factsheet: Outamba-Kilimi National Park. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org on 19/07/2019.

<span id="R01478"></span>Brncic, T.M., Amarasekaran,B. & McKenna,A. 2010. Final Report of the Sierra Leone National Chimpanzee Census Project. Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone. [https://web.archive.org/web/20160308223613/http://tacugama.com/census.html link]

<span id="R01479"></span>Kühl, H. S., Boesch, C., Kulik, L., Haas, F., Arandjelovic, M., Dieguez, P., …, & Kalan, A. K. (2019). Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity. ''Science'', 363(6434), 1453-1455. [https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau4532 doi:10.1126/science.aau4532]

<span id="R01480"></span>Munro, P. (2015). Geza Teleki and the Emergence of Sierra Leone's Wildlife Conservation Movement. ''Primate Conservation'', 29(1), 115-122. [https://doi.org/10.1896/052.029.0112 doi:10.1896/052.029.0112]

<span id="R01481"></span>Tourism – navigating opportunities amidst challenges. (2024, November 27). *Sierra Eye Magazine*. https://www.sierraeyemagazine.com/tourism-navigating-opportunities-amidst-challenges/

<span id="R01482"></span>Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (2011). Report on Education and Awareness Activities to improve the protection of wild chimpanzees and their habitat in West Africa, undertaken by the Wild Chimpanzee Foundation. Wild Chimpanzee Foundation.

<span id="R01483"></span>Wild Chimpanzee Foundation (WCF). 2015. Baseline Assessment of Chimpanzee and Elephant Populations in the Mano River Union Countries – Côte d’Ivoire, Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea (2007-2014). Report online: https://www.wildchimps.org/fileadmin/content_files/pdfs/reports/STEWARD_Report_on_chimpanzee_and_elephant_Status_MRU_FINAL.pdf

<span id="R02298"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''M. Kaiser & APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2019-11-12

'''Page updated by: '''Lahai Keifala''' Date:''' 2025-04-23

Oluwa Forest Reserve

2026-10-15T21:54:34Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Nigeria]] > [[Oluwa Forest Reserve]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Oluwa_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Oluwa_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Oluwa_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Oluwa_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Oluwa_Forest_Reserve?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|6.823, 4.674~[[Oluwa Forest Reserve]]~''Pan troglodytes ellioti''}}</div>
* Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes ellioti'') are present in Oluwa Forest Reserve.
* The population size is unknown.
* The chimpanzee population trend is unknown.
* The site has a total size of 678 km².
* Key threats to chimpanzees are hunting, logging, and expansion of land for agriculture.
* The site is part of the Omo-Shasha-Oluwa project, implemented by the Nigerian Conservation Foundation, which aims to connect three forest reserves and manage them as a wildlife sanctuary.

= Site characteristics =

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|-
|Area
|678 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 6.823 , Lon: 4.674
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Forest Reserve)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest, Agricultural land
|-
|Type of governance
|
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

In 2006, chimpanzees and signs of chimpanzees (nests and vocalizations) were observed by the Owena river in the core area of the reserve ([[#R01471|Greengrass 2006]]). Similarly, in 2012 the distribution of chimpanzees was confined to the core area of the reserve (segment OA2), encompassing approximately 39.22 km², or 5.78% of the total forest reserve ([[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olaniyi 2012]]). The population trend is unknown.

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|2011-2012
|Present
|
|
|
|Oluwa Forest Reserve
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olaniyi 2012]]
|Reconnaissance walk. The study recorded 9.50 ± 1.55 individuals and 13 nests. Vocalizations and footprints were also documented.
|
|-
|''Pan troglodytes ellioti''
|2006
|Present
|
|
|
|Oluwa Forest Reserve
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01471|Greengrass 2006]]
|Reconnaissance walk. Nests and individuals were seen in the core area of the reserve.Vocalizations and nests also observed.
|
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Cultivation began from the outer edges of the reserve; only the core area has some natural forest left ([[#R01471|Greengrass 2006]], [[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olayimi 2012]]).
|2006-Ongoing (2012)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.1 Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Hunting is a major threat in the area; several gunshots were heard during a survey in 2006 ([[#R01471|Greengrass 2006]], [[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olayimi 2012]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|-
|5 Biological resource use
|5.3 Logging & wood harvesting
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|Logging activity on the eastern side of the Owena River, where chimpanzees were observed ([[#R01471|Greengrass 2006]]).
|Ongoing (2012)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

Together with Omo and Shasha forest reserves, Oluwa is part of the Omo-Shasha-Oluwa project, implemented by the Nigerian Conservation Foundation, which aims to connect the three areas ([[#R01473|PNI 2011]]). Although Omo and Shasha reserves are connected, Oluwa forest is isolated. The plan is to manage the Omo-Shasha-Oluwa areas as a wildlife sanctuary and permit human use where it is compatible with forest conservation. Other conservation activities included in the plan are the re-gazettement of forest reserve areas, community development, environmental education, research, eco-tourism, and long-term financing through REDD carbon credits ([[#R01473|PNI 2011]]). Further information on the advancement of these activities has not been reported.

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

'''Table 6. Enablers reported for Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="enabler-table"
!Enablers
!Specific enablers
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|1 Site management
|
|
|
|-
|2 Resources and capacity
|
|
|
|-
|3 Engaged community
|
|
|
|-
|4 Institutional support
|
|
|
|-
|5 Ecological context
|
|
|
|-
|6 Safety and stability
|
|
|
|}

[[Enablers]]

= Research activities =

A new nesting behavior was observed in the Oluwa Forest Reserve chimpanzee population during a survey in 2011-2012 ([[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olaniyi 2012]]). The majority of nests were built on rock platforms, perhaps due to the absence of tree species that are usually used for nesting ([[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olaniyi 2012]]).

= Documented behaviours =

'''Table 7. Behaviours documented for Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="behaviours-table"
!Category
!Behavior
!Observation type
!Prevalence
!Observation dates
!Source
!Habituation
!Species
!Comment
|-
|
|Making ground nests
|
|
|
|[[#R01472|Ogunjemite & Olaniyi 2012]]
|
|
|
|}

[[Behaviours]]

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02297|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02297|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|27.2
|28.3
|28.1
|28.4
|29.5
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1833
|1851
|1890
|1873
|1907
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|40.4
|39.2
|37
|37.4
|41.9
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.1
|9.6
|10.2
|10.2
|11.3
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Oluwa Forest Reserve'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|2.84
|1
|0.73
|1
|2.93
|3.5
|2.93
|-
|Drought
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Heatwave
|10
|100
|11
|100
|10
|100
|13
|100
|-
|River flood
|0.5
|0.54
|0.5
|0.18
|0.5
|0.4
|2.5
|0.99
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.03
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.44
|30
|0.47
|29
|0.44
|29
|0.46
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Oluwa.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Oluwa Forest Reserve]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Oluwa.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Oluwa Forest Reserve]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01471"></span>Greengrass, E.J. (2006). A survey of chimpanzees in south-west Nigeria. Report to the NCF-WCS Biodiversity Research Programme. [http://cameroun-foret.com/system/files/18_13_132.pdf link]

<span id="R01472"></span>Ogunjemite, B.G. and Olaniyi, O.E. (2012), “The chimpanzees of Oluwa Forest

<span id="R01473"></span>Pro-Natura International. (2011), Project Progress Report for the International Elephant Foundation January 2010 – May 2011.

<span id="R01474"></span>Reserve, southwest Nigeria”, International Journal of Development and Sustainability, Vol. 1 No. 3, pp.

<span id="R02297"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''APES Atlas Team''' Date:''' 2020-11-19

Okromodou Classified Forest

2026-10-15T21:54:33Z

WikiEdit:

[[West Africa]] > [[Côte d'Ivoire]] > [[Okromodou Classified Forest]]

'''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Okromodou_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=fr&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Français]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Okromodou_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=pt&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Português]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Okromodou_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Español]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Okromodou_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=id&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Bahasa Indonesia]''' | '''[https://apesatlas-iucnapesportal-org.translate.goog/index.php/Okromodou_Classified_Forest?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=ms&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=wapp Melayu]'''

__TOC__
= Summary =

<div style='float: right'>{{#display_map: height=190px | width=300px | scrollzoom=off | zoom=5 | layers=OpenStreetMap,OpenTopoMap|5.295830, -5.683060~[[Okromodou Classified Forest]]~''Pan troglodytes verus''}}</div>
* West African chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes verus'') have been extirpated from Okromodou Classified Forest.
* This site has a total surface area of 700 km².
* The main threat to chimpanzees is habitat loss due to agriculture.
* Conservation activities are unknown.

= Site characteristics =

'''Table 1. Basic site information for Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Site_characteristics-table"
|Species
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|-
|Area
|700 km²
|-
|Coordinates
|Lat: 5.295830 , Lon: -5.683060
|-
|Type of site
|Protected area (Classified Forest)
|-
|Habitat types
|Subtropical/tropical moist lowland forest

|-
|Type of governance
|Governance by government
|}

[[Types of sites]] [[Governance types]] [[Habitat types]]

= Ape status =

'''Table 2. Ape population estimates reported for Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Ape_status-table"
!Species
!Year
!Occurrence
!Encounter or vistation rate (nests/km; ind/day)
!Density estimate [ind./ km²] (95% CI)
!Abundance estimate (95% CI)
!Survey area
!Sampling method
!Analytical framework
!Source
!Comments
!A.P.E.S. database ID
|-
|''Pan troglodytes verus''
|2007
|Absent
|
|
|
|Okromodou Classified Forest
|Reconnaissance walk
|
|[[#R01470|Campbell 2008]]
|
|CIV0063
|}

[[Sampling methods]] [[Analytical frameworks]]

= Threats =

'''Table 3. Threats to apes reported for Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Threats-table"
!Category
!Specific threats
!Threat level
!Description
!Year of threat
|-
|2 Agriculture & aquaculture
|2.1 Annual & perennial non-timber crops
|High (more than 70% of population affected)
|The site is dominated by plantations, including, cocoa, coffee, and hevea (Soiret pers. comm. 2025).
|Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Threats]]

= Conservation activities =

'''Table 4. Conservation activities reported for Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Conservation_activities-table"
!Category
!Specific activity
!Description
!Implementing organization(s)
!Year of activity
|-
|5 Protection & restoration
|5.2 Legally protect ape habitat
|
|
|Ongoing (2025)
|}

[[Conservation activities]]

= Challenges =

'''Table 5. Challenges reported for Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="Challenges-table"
!Challenges
!Specific challenges
!Source
!Year(s)
|-
|
|Not reported
|
|
|}

[[Challenges]]

= Enablers =

= Research activities =

= Documented behaviours =

= Exposure to climate change impacts =

As part of a study on the exposure of African great ape sites to climate change impacts, [[#R02296|Kiribou et al. (2024)]] extracted climate data and data on projected extreme climate impact events for the site. Climatological characteristics were derived from observation-based climate data provided by the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP, www.isimip.org). Parameters were calculated as the average across each 30-year period. For 1981-2010, the EWEMBI dataset from ISIMIP2a was used. For the two future periods (2021-2050 and 2071-2099) ISIMIP2b climate data based on four CMIP5 global climate models were used. For future projections, two Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) were used. RCP 2.6 is a scenario with strong mitigation measures in which global temperatures would likely rise below 2C. RCP 6.0 is a scenario with medium emissions in which global temperatures would likely rise up to 3C by 2100. For the number of days with heavy precipitation events, the 98th percentile of all precipitation days (>1mm/d) was calculated for the 1979-2013 reference period as a threshold for a heavy precipitation event. Then, for each year, the number of days above that threshold was derived. The figures on temperature and precipitation anomaly show the deviation from the mean temperature and mean precipitation for the 1979-2013 reference period.

The estimated exposure to future extreme climate impact events (crop failure, drought, river flood, wildfire, tropical cyclone, and heatwave) is based on a published dataset by Lange et al. 2020 derived from ISIMIP2b data. The same global climate models and RCPs as described above were used. Within each 30-year period, the number of years with an extreme event and the average proportion of the site affected were calculated ([[#R02296|Kiribou et al. 2024]]).

'''Table 8. Estimated past and projected climatological characteristics in Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima-table"
!Value
!1981-2010
!2021-2050, RCP 2.6
!2021-2050, RCP 6.0
!2071-2099, RCP 2.6
!2071-2099, RCP 6.0
|-
|Mean temperature [C]
|26.5
|27.5
|27.3
|27.6
|28.6
|-
|Annual precipitation [mm]
|1381
|1324
|1405
|1339
|1367
|-
|Max no. consecutive dry days (per year)
|26.5
|28.5
|28
|27.8
|31.4
|-
|No. days with heavy precipitation (per year)
|6.9
|6.9
|6.5
|5.7
|7.9
|}

'''Table 9. Projected exposure of apes to extreme climate impact events in Okromodou Classified Forest'''
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" class="clima2-table"
!Type
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2021-2050, RCP 6.0)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 2.6)
!No. of years with event (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
!% of site exposed (2070-2099, RCP 6.0)
|-
|Crop failure
|3
|3.68
|1.5
|2.06
|0.5
|1.17
|2
|3.77
|-
|Drought
|1.5
|75
|0.75
|75
|1
|100
|0.75
|50
|-
|Heatwave
|17
|100
|17.5
|100
|21
|100
|17
|100
|-
|River flood
|0
|0
|0
|0
|0.5
|0.42
|0.5
|0.43
|-
|Tropical cyclone
|0
|0
|0.5
|1.29
|0
|0
|0
|0
|-
|Wildfire
|30
|0.41
|30
|0.45
|29
|0.41
|29
|0.42
|}

<div><ul><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:PrecipAnomaly_Okromodou_CF.png| 450px | thumb| none | Precipitation anomaly in Okromodou Classified Forest]] </li><li style="display: inline-block; vertical-align: top;"> [[File:TempAnomaly_Okromodou_CF.png | 450px | thumb| none | Temperature anomaly in Okromodou Classified Forest]] </li></ul></div>

= External links =

= References =

<span id="R01470"></span>Campbell, G. (2008). Rapport préliminaire sur les parcs nationaux et les forêts classées inventoriés en Côte d’Ivoire. Rapport présenté à la direction de l’OIPR et de la SODEFOR. Unpublished report. <br>

<span id="R02296"></span>Kiribou, R., Tehoda, P., Chukwu, O., Bempah, G., Kühl, H. S., Ferreira, J., …, & Heinicke, S. (2024). Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impacts. ''PLOS Climate'', 3(2), e0000345. [https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345 doi:10.1371/journal.pclm.0000345]

'''Page created by: '''Serge Soiret''' Date:''' 2025-05-27